The use of linear mixed effects models (LMMs) is increasingly common in the analysis of biological data. Whilst LMMs offer a flexible approach to modelling a broad range of data types, ecological data are often complex and require complex model structures, and the fitting and interpretation of such models is not always straightforward. The ability to achieve robust biological inference requires that practitioners know how and when to apply these tools. Here, we provide a general overview of current methods for the application of LMMs to biological data, and highlight the typical pitfalls that can be encountered in the statistical modelling process. We tackle several issues regarding methods of model selection, with particular reference to the use of information theory and multi-model inference in ecology. We offer practical solutions and direct the reader to key references that provide further technical detail for those seeking a deeper understanding. This overview should serve as a widely accessible code of best practice for applying LMMs to complex biological problems and model structures, and in doing so improve the robustness of conclusions drawn from studies investigating ecological and evolutionary questions.

The interrelationship between public interest in endangered species and the attention they receive from the conservation community is the ‘flywheel’ driving much effort to abate global extinction rates. Yet big international conservation non-governmental organisations have typically focused on the plight of a handful of appealing endangered species, while the public remains largely unaware of the majority. We quantified the existence of bias in popular interest towards species, by analysing global internet search interest in 36,873 vertebrate taxa. Web search interest was higher for mammals and birds at greater risk of extinction, but this was not so for fish, reptiles and amphibians. Our analysis reveals a global bias in popular interest towards vertebrates that is undermining incentives to invest financial capital in thousands of species threatened with extinction. Raising the popular profile of these lesser known endangered and critically endangered species will generate clearer political and financial incentives for their protection.

Concern has been expressed over societal losses of plant species identification skills. These losses have potential implications for engagement with conservation issues, gaining human wellbeing benefits from biodiversity (such as those resulting from nature-based recreational activities), and early warning of the spread of problematic species. However, understanding of the prevailing level of species identification skills, and of its key drivers, remains poor. Here, we explore socio-demographic factors influencing plant identification knowledge and ability to classify plants as native or non-native, employing a novel method of using real physical plants, rather than photographs or illustrations. We conducted face-to-face surveys at three different sites chosen to capture respondents with a range of socio-demographic circumstances, in Cornwall, UK. We found that survey participants correctly identified c.60% of common plant species, were significantly worse at naming non-native than native plants, and that less than 20% of people recognised Japanese knotweed Fallopia japonica, which is a widespread high profile invasive non-native in the study region. Success at naming plants was higher if participants were female, a member of at least one environmental, conservation or gardening organisation, in an older age group (than the base category of 18–29 years), or a resident (rather than visitor) of the study area. Understanding patterns of variation in plant identification knowledge can inform the development of education and engagement strategies, for example, by targeting sectors of society where knowledge is lowest. Furthermore, greater understanding of general levels of identification of problematic invasive non-native plants can guide awareness and education campaigns to mitigate their impacts.

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31 32The use of linear mixed effects models (LMMs) is increasingly common in the analysis 33 of biological data. Whilst LMMs offer a flexible approach to modelling a broad range of 34 data types, ecological data are often complex and require complex model structures, 35 and the fitting and interpretation of such models is not always straightforward. The 36 ability to achieve robust biological inference requires that practitioners know how and 37 when to apply these tools. Here, we provide a general overview of current methods for 38 the application of LMMs to biological data, and highlight the typical pitfalls that can be 39 encountered in the statistical modelling process. We tackle several issues relating to the 40 use of information theory and multi-model inference in ecology, and demonstrate the 41 tendency for data dredging to lead to greatly inflated Type I error rate (false positives) 42 and impaired inference. We offer practical solutions and direct the reader to key

Biodiversity loss is one of the principle challenges facing us today. To halt and reverse this loss, conservation practitioners must find ways to change human behaviors which threaten species and ecosystems. Increasingly, it is being recognized that social marketing could be an effective way of achieving voluntary, ethical, and long-lasting behavior change for the benefit of biodiversity. By conducting a global survey of conservation practitioners, the objective of this study was to assess the need for social marketing skills, as well as the demand, supply, and barriers to receiving social marketing training in the conservation sector. From a sample of 322 conservation practitioners from 71 countries, results suggest there is a marked lack of social marketing skills in the conservation sector, with only 16.1% of participants considering their skill level to be expert or advanced. However, 61.5% of participants reported needing advanced or expert social marketing skills to be effective in their current role. In addition, the survey revealed a high demand for training in social marketing, but also that a lack of funds, time, and available courses all present major barriers to conservation practitioners receiving such training. The implications of these results for designing methods of providing conservation practitioners with social marketing skills and removing barriers are discussed.

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Summary Invasive non‐native plants (INNPs) can have serious and widespread negative ecological and socio‐economic impacts. It is therefore important they are managed appropriately. Within domestic gardens management decisions, which will tend to be made by individual members of the public, are likely to vary depending on (a) understanding of problems caused by INNP, and (b) knowledge of best practice. Using content analysis, an approach seldom employed in an ecological context, this study analysed variation in internet‐based information sources regarding INNP to determine how this collective discourse might influence risk perceptions and management decisions for domestic garden owners/managers. We used Japanese knotweed Fallopia japonica in the UK, as a case study, as it is one of the most ecologically and economically damaging INNP in the region. Our analysis categorized the types of author disseminating information about Japanese knotweed, the relative frequency of documents between author categories, and variation in content and style between and within author categories. We identified five author categories: environmental NGOs, control companies, government, media and the property market. There was extensive variation in document structure, topics discussed, references and links to other sources, and language style; sometimes this variation was between author categories and sometimes within author categories. The most significant variation in topics discussed between author categories was indirect socio‐economic problems, with control companies discussing these most. The number of pieces of legislation referenced and the proportion of militaristic words used were also highly significantly different between author categories. Some documents used neutral terminology and were more circumspect, whilst others were more forceful in expressing opinions and sensational. The author category returning the highest number of documents was the subcategory local government, the shortest of which contained neither links to other information nor referenced any organizations. Further analysis of local government documents revealed conflicting advice regarding the disposal of Japanese knotweed waste material; confusion about this topic could result in decisions being made that spread Japanese knotweed further and are potentially unlawful. The potential implications of our findings for the management of INNP in domestic gardens and societal perceptions of risks posed by INNP are discussed. Synthesis and applications. To help prevent inappropriate management of invasive non‐native plants (INNPs), for example Japanese knotweed Fallopia japonica in domestic gardens, we recommend that local and national authorities collaborate and work towards disseminating more consistent messages about (a) the potential socio‐economic and ecological problems caused by INNP, whilst avoiding hyperbole, and (b) the most appropriate management techniques.