An all-inorganic polynuclear unit consisting of an oxo-bridged binuclear ZrOCo(II) group coupled to an iridium oxide nanocluster (IrO(x)) was assembled on an SBA-15 silica mesopore surface. A photodeposition method was developed that affords coupling of the IrO(x) water oxidation catalyst with the Co donor center. The approach consists of excitation of the ZrOCo(II) metal-to-metal charge-transfer (MMCT) chromophore with visible light in the presence of [Ir(acac)3] (acac: acetylacetonate) precursor followed by calcination under mild conditions, with each step monitored by optical and infrared spectroscopy. Illumination of the MMCT chromophore of the resulting ZrOCo(II)-IrO(x) units in the SBA-15 pores loaded with a mixture of (13)CO2 and H2O vapor resulted in the formation of (13)CO and O2 monitored by FT-IR and mass spectroscopy, respectively. Use of (18)O labeled water resulted in the formation of (18)O2 product. This is the first example of a closed photosynthetic cycle of carbon dioxide reduction by water using an all-inorganic polynuclear cluster featuring a molecularly defined light absorber. The observed activity implies successful competition of electron transfer between the IrO(x) catalyst cluster and the transient oxidized Co donor center with back electron transfer of the ZrOCo light absorber, and is further aided by the instant desorption of the CO and O2 product from the silica pores.

The complexes [Ru(bpy)(2)(OS)](PF(6)) and [Ru(bpy)(2)(OSO)](PF(6)), where bpy is 2,2'-bipyridine, OS is 2-methylthiobenzoate, and OSO is 2-methylsulfinylbenzoate, have been studied. The electrochemical and photochemical reactivity of [Ru(bpy)(2)(OSO)](+) is consistent with an isomerization of the bound sulfoxide from S-bonded (S-) to O-bonded (O-) following irradiation or electrochemical oxidation. Charge transfer excitation of [Ru(bpy)(2)(OSO)](+) in MeOH results in the appearance of two new metal-to-ligand charge transfer (MLCT) maxima at 355 and 496 nm, while the peak at 396 nm diminishes in intensity. The isomerization is reversible at room temperature in alcohol or propylene carbonate solution. In the absence of light, solutions of O-[Ru(bpy)(2)(OSO)](+) revert to S-[Ru(bpy)(2)(OSO)](+). Kinetic analysis reveals a biexponential decay with rate constants of 5.66(3) x 10(-4) s(-1) and 3.1(1) x 10(-5) s(-1). Cyclic voltammograms of S-[Ru(bpy)(2)(OSO)](+) are consistent with electron-transfer-triggered isomerization of the sulfoxide. Analysis of these voltammograms reveal E(S)(o)' = 0.86 V and E(O)(o)' = 0.49 V versus Ag/Ag(+) for the S- and O-bonded Ru(3+/2+) couples, respectively, in propylene carbonate. We found k(S-->O) = 0.090(15) s(-1) in propylene carbonate and k(S-->O) = 0.11(3) s(-1) in acetonitrile on Ru(III), which is considerably slower than has been reported for other sulfoxide isomerizations on ruthenium polypyridyl complexes following oxidation. The photoisomerization quantum yield (Phi(S-->O) = 0.45, methanol) is quite large, indicating a rapid excited state isomerization rate constant. The kinetic trace at 500 nm is monoexponential with tau = 150 ps, which is assigned to the excited S-->O isomerization rate. There is no spectroscopic or kinetic evidence for an O-bonded (3)MLCT excited state in the spectral evolution of S-[Ru(bpy)(2)(OSO)](+) to O-[Ru(bpy)(2)(OSO)](+). Thus, isomerization occurs nonadiabatically from an S-bonded (or eta(2)-sulfoxide) (3)MLCT excited state to an O-bonded ground state. Density functional theory calculations support the assigned spectroscopy and provide insight into ruthenium ligand bonding.

The reduction of carbon dioxide by water with sunlight in an artificial system offers an opportunity for utilizing non-arable land for generating renewable transportation fuels to replace fossil resources. Because of the very large scale required for the impact on fuel consumption, the scalability of artificial photosystems is of key importance. Closing the photosynthetic cycle of carbon dioxide reduction and water oxidation on the nanoscale addresses major barriers for scalability as well as high efficiency, such as resistance losses inherent to ion transport over macroscale distances, loss of charge and other efficiency degrading processes, or excessive need for the balance of system components, to mention a few. For the conversion of carbon dioxide to six-electron or even more highly reduced liquid fuel products, introduction of a proton conducting, gas impermeable separation membrane is critical. This article reviews recent progress in the development of light absorber-catalyst assemblies for the reduction and oxidation half reactions with focus on well defined polynuclear structures, and on novel approaches for optimizing electron transfer among the molecular or nanoparticulate components. Studies by time-resolved optical and infrared spectroscopy for the understanding of charge transfer processes between the chromophore and the catalyst, and of the mechanism of water oxidation at metal oxide nanocatalysts through direct observation of surface reaction intermediates are discussed. All-inorganic polynuclear units for reducing carbon dioxide by water at the nanoscale are introduced, and progress towards core-shell nanotube assemblies for completing the photosynthetic cycle under membrane separation is described.