No abstract

No abstract

Recent investigations concerning ways people employ prayer typically suffer from either a fundamentally atheoretical approach or an indiscriminant mixing of affective, behavioral, and cognitive components. The present study examines the theory that a general concept of prayer-as-connection contains prayers of inward (connection with oneself), outward (human-human connection), or upward (human-divine connection) foci. Participants rated words or phrases according to what they "thought about" while praying. Factor analysis revealed eight primary factors: two inward, four outward, and two upward. Three second-order factors emerged (two outward and one upward). However, no general factor appeared.

Although the transmission of religiousness has been assumed to be purely cultural, behavior genetic studies have demonstrated that genetic factors play a role in the individual differences in some religious traits. This article reviews the extant behavior genetic literature and presents new analyses from the "Virginia 30,000" on the causes of variation in religious affiliation, attitudes, and practices, and relates these to personality as construed by Eysenck. Results indicate that religious affiliation is primarily a culturally transmitted phenomenon, whereas religious attitudes and practices are moderately influenced by genetic factors. Further, Eysenck's personality traits do not mediate genetic influences on religiousness, but significant negative genetic correlations are found between church attendance and liberal sexual attitudes. Implications and possibilities for future studies are discussed.

This study provides support for a model that conceptualizes prayers as the means to establish cognitive connections in three directions: inward (self-connection); outward (human-human connection); and upward (human-divine connections). A confirmatory factor analysis demonstrates a single general prayer factor divisible into three subfactors that are in turn comprised of eight discrete scales. Measures of general religiosity, the need for structure, religious styles of coping, well-being, life-satisfaction, and belief in the paranormal provide evidence of convergent and divergent validity for the theory of prayer as a mechanism for inward, outward, and upward connections.Early in the history of modern psychology the study of prayer was a thriving concern (Pratt 1908;Strong 1909). In subsequent years, however, investigations of prayer dropped off quickly, following the general trend of declining interest in the relation between psychology and religious beliefs (Spilka and McIntosh 1999). During the last several years, researchers using newer methods have revisited the topic (Hood, Morris, and Harvey 1993;Ladd and Spilka 2002;Laird et al. 2001;Poloma and Gallup 1991). Ladd and Spilka (2002) summarized previous efforts to construct multidimensional prayer scales and noted several difficulties while attempting to reconcile the various studies. These problems included the presence of different participant instructions, nonstandard methods of response, and an indiscriminate mixture of items (affective, behavioral, and cognitive). Most damaging, however, was the lack of a theoretical paradigm for understanding the role of prayer in religion. Building on Foster's writings (1992), Ladd and Spilka (2002) sought to rectify this situation by proposing an explicit theoretical basis for understanding prayer as a means of forming cognitive connections. Following this pathway, they demonstrated that prayers contain inward, outward, and upward dimensions as postulated by Foster (1992; see Figure 1). Inward prayers emphasize self-examination. Outward prayers focus on strengthening human-human connections. Upward prayers center on the human-divine relationship. Eight first-order factors reflected this tripartite notion of the directions in which prayer can provide connectivity.In addition to the directionality of prayer inherent in the first-order factors, Ladd and Spilka (2002) also reported three second-order factors that appear to represent the intentionality of prayer. Higher order factor one consists of content emphasizing intercession (outward: prayer on behalf of someone's difficulties), suffering (outward: prayer to share another's pain), and examination (inward: prayer to evaluate one's spiritual status). In broad terms, this seems to represent a way of connecting that highlights internal conditions of others and one's self. Engaging in intercessory prayer necessitates recognition of another's inner struggle, even as examination prayer evaluates one's own private situation. Perhaps even more intense is the prayer of suffe...