Here we report a high-quality draft genome sequence of the domestic dog (Canis familiaris), together with a dense map of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) across breeds. The dog is of particular interest because it provides important evolutionary information and because existing breeds show great phenotypic diversity for morphological, physiological and behavioural traits. We use sequence comparison with the primate and rodent lineages to shed light on the structure and evolution of genomes and genes. Notably, the majority of the most highly conserved non-coding sequences in mammalian genomes are clustered near a small subset of genes with important roles in development. Analysis of SNPs reveals long-range haplotypes across the entire dog genome, and defines the nature of genetic diversity within and across breeds. The current SNP map now makes it possible for genome-wide association studies to identify genes responsible for diseases and traits, with important consequences for human and companion animal health.

Biosensors for small molecules can be used in applications that range from metabolic engineering to orthogonal control of transcription. Here, we produce biosensors based on a ligand-binding domain (LBD) by using a method that, in principle, can be applied to any target molecule. The LBD is fused to either a fluorescent protein or a transcriptional activator and is destabilized by mutation such that the fusion accumulates only in cells containing the target ligand. We illustrate the power of this method by developing biosensors for digoxin and progesterone. Addition of ligand to yeast, mammalian, or plant cells expressing a biosensor activates transcription with a dynamic range of up to ~100-fold. We use the biosensors to improve the biotransformation of pregnenolone to progesterone in yeast and to regulate CRISPR activity in mammalian cells. This work provides a general methodology to develop biosensors for a broad range of molecules in eukaryotes.DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.7554/eLife.10606.001

The 518 protein kinases encoded in the human genome are exquisitely regulated and their aberrant function(s) are often associated with human disease. Thus, in order to advance therapeutics and to probe signal transduction cascades there is considerable interest in the development of inhibitors that can selectively target protein kinases. However, identifying specific compounds against such a large array of protein kinases is difficult to routinely achieve utilizing traditional activity assays, where purified protein kinases are necessary. Toward a simple, rapid, and practical method for identifying specific inhibitors, we describe the development and application of a split-protein methodology utilizing a coiled-coil assisted three-hybrid system. In this approach, a protein kinase of interest is attached to the C-terminal fragment of split-firefly luciferase and the coiled-coil Fos, which is specific for the coiled-coil Jun, is attached to the N-terminal fragment. Upon addition of Jun conjugated to a pan-kinase inhibitor such as staurosporine, a three-hybrid complex is established with concomitant reassembly of the split-luciferase enzyme. An inhibitor can be potentially identified by the commensurate loss in split-luciferase activity by displacement of the modified staurosporine. We demonstrate that this new three-hybrid approach is potentially general by testing protein kinases from the different kinase families. To interrogate whether this method allows for screening inhibitors, we tested six different protein kinases against a library of 80 known protein kinase inhibitors. Finally, we demonstrate that this three-hybrid system can potentially provide a rapid method for structure/function analysis as well as aid in the identification of allosteric inhibitors.

Split-protein reporters have emerged as a powerful methodology for imaging biomolecular interactions which are of much interest as targets for chemical intervention. Herein we describe a systematic evaluation of split-proteins, specifically the green fluorescent protein, beta-lactamase, and several luciferases, for their ability to function as reporters in completely cell-free systems to allow for the extremely rapid and sensitive determination of a wide range of biomolecular interactions without the requirement for laborious transfection, cell culture, or protein purification (12-48 h). We demonstrate that the cell-free split-luciferase system in particular is amenable for directly interrogating protein-protein, protein-DNA, and protein-RNA interactions in homogeneous assays with very high sensitivity (22-1800 fold) starting from the corresponding mRNA or DNA. Importantly, we show that the cell-free system allows for the rapid (2 h) identification of target-site specificity for protein-nucleic acid interactions and in evaluating antagonists of protein-protein and protein-peptide complexes circumventing protein purification bottlenecks. Moreover, we show that the cell-free split-protein system is adaptable for analysis of both protein-protein and protein-nucleic acid interactions in artificial cell systems comprising water-in-oil emulsions. Thus, this study provides a general and enabling methodology for the rapid interrogation of a wide variety of biomolecular interactions and their antagonists without the limitations imposed by current in vitro and in vivo approaches.

Using a newly developed competitive binding assay dependent upon the reassembly of a split reporter protein, we have tested the promiscuity of a panel of reported kinase inhibitors against the AGC group. Many non-AGC targeted kinase inhibitors target multiple members of the AGC group. In general, structurally similar inhibitors consistently exhibited activity toward the same target as well as toward closely related kinases. The inhibition data was analyzed to test the predictive value of either using identity scores derived from residues within 6 Å of the active site or identity scores derived from the entire kinase domain. The results suggest that the active site identity in certain cases may be a stronger predictor of inhibitor promiscuity. The overall results provide general guidelines for establishing inhibitor selectivity, as well as for the future design of inhibitors that either target or avoid AGC kinases.

The use of the edible photosynthetic cyanobacterium Arthrospira platensis (spirulina) as a biomanufacturing platform has been limited by a lack of genetic tools. Here we report genetic engineering methods for stable, high-level expression of bioactive proteins in spirulina, including large-scale, indoor cultivation and downstream processing methods. Following targeted integration of exogenous genes into the spirulina chromosome (chr), encoded protein biopharmaceuticals can represent as much as 15% of total biomass, require no purification before oral delivery and are stable without refrigeration and protected during gastric transit when encapsulated within dry spirulina. Oral delivery of a spirulina-expressed antibody targeting campylobacter—a major cause of infant mortality in the developing world—prevents disease in mice, and a phase 1 clinical trial demonstrated safety for human administration. Spirulina provides an advantageous system for the manufacture of orally delivered therapeutic proteins by combining the safety of a food-based production host with the accessible genetic manipulation and high productivity of microbial platforms.

Biosensors are important components of many synthetic biology and metabolic engineering applications. Here, we report a second generation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae digoxigenin and progesterone biosensors based on destabilized dimeric ligand-binding domains that undergo ligand-induced stabilization. The biosensors, comprising one ligand-binding domain monomer fused to a DNA-binding domain and another fused to a transcriptional activation domain, activate reporter gene expression in response to steroid binding and receptor dimerization. The introduction of a destabilizing mutation to the dimer interface increased biosensor dynamic range by an order of magnitude. Computational redesign of the dimer interface and functional selections were used to create heterodimeric pairs with further improved dynamic range. A heterodimeric biosensor built from the digoxigenin and progesterone ligand-binding domains functioned as a synthetic "AND"-gate, with 20-fold stronger response to the two ligands in combination than to either one alone. We also identified mutations that increase the sensitivity or selectivity of the biosensors to chemically similar ligands. These dimerizing biosensors provide additional flexibility for the construction of logic gates and other applications.

Arthrospira platensis (commonly known as spirulina) is a photosynthetic cyanobacterium1. It is a highly nutritious food that has been consumed for decades in the US, and even longer by indigenous cultures2. Its widespread use as a safe food source and proven scalability have driven frequent attempts to convert it into a biomanufacturing platform. But these were repeatedly frustrated by spirulina’s genetic intractability. We report here efficient and versatile genetic engineering methodology for spirulina that allows stable expression of bioactive protein therapeutics at high levels. We further describe large-scale, indoor cultivation and downstream processing methods appropriate for the manufacturing of biopharmaceuticals in spirulina. The potential of the platform is illustrated by pre-clinical development and human testing of an orally delivered antibody therapeutic against campylobacter, a major cause of infant mortality in the developing world and a growing antibiotic resistance threat3,4. This integrated development and manufacturing platform blends the safety of food-based biotechnology with the ease of genetic manipulation, rapid growth rates and high productivity characteristic of microbial platforms. These features combine for exceptionally low-cost production of biopharmaceuticals to address medical needs that are unfeasible with current biotechnology platforms.