No abstract

An environmentally friendly aqueous sol-gel process has been developed to fabricate thin films of indium tin oxide (ITO). A stable sol was prepared from indium nitrate and tin acetate precursors together with acetic acid and ethylene glycol. The sol transformed into an amorphous gel during heating, which decomposed and crystallized further to nano-crystalline ITO at $300 C. The nanocrystalline ITO powders prepared from the precursor gel were homogeneous and single phase with particle sizes around 15 nm. The aqueous sol was applied for spin coating of ITO films on glass substrates. The deposited thin films were homogeneous and continuous with no cracks or pin-holes and exhibited very good and reproducible optical transparency and electrical conductivity, with a specific resistance of 4.59 Â 10 À3 U cm, thereby demonstrating the potential of this Pechini related sol-gel process. Experiments to determine the robustness of the process with respect to the concentration of the precursors and substitution of the organic components with other alcohols or acids were also performed, and some important aspects of the chemistry of the sol-gel process are addressed.

The agrochemical sector operates on a large scale within a highly complex environment. Cost-effective production on an increasing scale in a sustainable fashion imposes massive constraints on the industry. Here we offer a perspective on flow chemistry, with literature highlights showing how the application of this technology can impact chemical processes (especially at the early stages of R&D) for agrochemicals, with clear benefits in comparison with a traditional batch vessel, be it safety, quality, or throughput. The value of flow chemistry for the business is clear, and the number of examples reported in the literature will undoubtably continue to increase in the agrochemical industry.