Are there noticeable differences among political parties in a country over their trade policy positions? Do left parties advocate different trade policies than right parties? In the advanced industrial countries where labor tends to be scarce, are left parties more protectionist than right ones, which represent capital owners? Political institutions within these democratic countries may affect the role of partisanship. We also investigate whether increasing globalization has led to more or less partisan polarization over trade policy. We examine 25 developed countries from 1945 to 1998 to see how their parties have competed over trade policy. Controlling for various factors, partisanship matters. Right parties consistently take more free trade stances than do left ones. Globalization and other international forces have also shaped both the nature and the extent of the domestic debate over exposure to international trade. Do political parties compete over trade policy? Since international trade has significant and predictable redistributive effects, politicians are likely to be concerned about trade policy in their efforts to win elections. If so, parties should develop positions on trade policy that reflect their constituents' interests. As they do on other issues, parties should thus adopt positions on trade policy that reflect their overall ideological or partisan position in policy space. Studies of macroeconomic policy (both fiscal and monetary) have shown that such party differentiation occurs; left-wing parties prefer policies that increase government spending and induce growth, while right ones favor policies that induce lower spending, balanced budgets, and lower inflation (see, e.g.
No abstract
Eyebrows raise. Sometimes there are sniggers. Glances are exchanged. Some people look confused. Some say 'what?' People seem surprised. 'Martial arts?', they ask, incredulously. 'Why?' Or even, 'Martial arts studies? What is that?' These kinds of reactions come from all sorts of people -whether academics or not. No one ever just nods and says, 'Oh, ok', the way they would if you'd just said Romantic poetry or urban planning or philosophy or music or fluid dynamics, or the way they might even if you'd just said that you 'do' one of the many obscure and often peculiarly named branches of modern science (whether neuroparasitology, nutrigenomics, cliodynamics, or something even more unexpected).
This study examines the impact of the Covid-19 pandemic on martial arts training worldwide. A mixed-method online questionnaire consisting of 28 items was used as a survey instrument. 306 martial artists responded. These were mainly from the United Kingdom, the USA, Germany, Italy and Japan. The questionnaire focused on pragmatic adaptations of training volume, training rhythm, training location, training mode (individual or group) and training methods. The survey sought to gain insights into modifications that martial artists made as a result of the Covid-19 pandemic in relation to their training, curriculum, alternative fitness, strength and health activities, as well as training goals.The results suggest that the training restrictions implemented by governments in order to try to combat the pandemic transformed the practice of martial arts on a massive and fundamental scale. Specifically, they led to two seemingly opposing developments: increasing digitisation and an increased focus on the importance of embodiment. The article concludes with a suggestion that these lines of development will mould the post-pandemic landscape of martial arts.
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