No abstract

We have adopted the concept of bispecific antibodies, which can simultaneously block or cross-link two different biomolecular targets, to create bispecific enzymes by exploiting the homodimeric quaternary structure of bacterial phosphotriesterases (PTEs). The PTEs from Brevundimonas diminuta and Agrobacterium radiobacter, whose engineered variants can efficiently hydrolyze organophosphorus (OP) nerve agents and pesticides, respectively, have attracted considerable interest for the treatment of the corresponding intoxications. OP nerve agents and pesticides still pose a severe toxicological threat in military conflicts, including acts of terrorism, as well as in agriculture, leading to >100000 deaths per year. In principle, engineered conventional homodimeric PTEs may provoke hydrolytic inactivation of individual OPs in vivo, and their application as catalytic bioscavengers via administration into the bloodstream has been proposed. However, their narrow substrate specificity would necessitate therapeutic application of a set or mixture of different enzymes, which complicates biopharmaceutical development. We succeeded in combining subunits from both enzymes and to stabilize their heterodimerization by rationally designing electrostatic steering mutations, thus breaking the natural C2 symmetry. The resulting bispecific enzyme from two PTEs with different bacterial origin exhibits an ultrabroad OP substrate profile and allows the efficient detoxification of both nerve agents and pesticides. Our approach of combining two active sites with distinct substrate specificities within one artificial dimeric biocatalystretaining the size and general properties of the original enzyme without utilizing protein mixtures or much larger fusion proteinsnot only should facilitate biological drug development but also may be applicable to oligomeric enzymes with other catalytic activities.

Highly toxic organophosphorus nerve agents, especially the extremely stable and persistent V-type agents such as VX, still pose a threat to the human population and require effective medical countermeasures. Engineered mutants of the Brevundimonas diminuta phosphotriesterase (BdPTE) exhibit enhanced catalytic activities and have demonstrated detoxification in animal models, however, substrate specificity and fast plasma clearance limit their medical applicability. To allow better assessment of their substrate profiles, we have thoroughly investigated the catalytic efficacies of five BdPTE mutants with 17 different nerve agents using an AChE inhibition assay. In addition, we studied one BdPTE version that was fused with structurally disordered PAS polypeptides to enable delayed plasma clearance and one bispecific BdPTE with broadened substrate spectrum composed of two functionally distinct subunits connected by a PAS linker. Measured kcat/KM values were as high as 6.5 and 1.5 × 108 M−1 min−1 with G- and V-agents, respectively. Furthermore, the stereoselective degradation of VX enantiomers by the PASylated BdPTE-4 and the bispecific BdPTE-7 were investigated by chiral LC–MS/MS, resulting in a several fold faster hydrolysis of the more toxic P(−) VX stereoisomer compared to P(+) VX. In conclusion, the newly developed enzymes BdPTE-4 and BdPTE-7 have shown high catalytic efficacy towards structurally different nerve agents and stereoselectivity towards the toxic P(−) VX enantiomer in vitro and offer promise for use as bioscavengers in vivo.

The biologically stable and highly toxic organophosphorus nerve agent (OP) VX poses a major health threat. Standard medical therapy, consisting of reactivators and competitive muscarinic receptor antagonists, is insufficient. Recently, two engineered mutants of the Brevundimonas diminuta phosphotriesterase (PTE) with enhanced catalytic efficiency (kcat/KM = 21 to 38 × 106 M−1 min−1) towards VX and a preferential hydrolysis of the more toxic P(−) enantiomer were described: PTE-C23(R152E)-PAS(100)-10-2-C3(I106A/C59V/C227V/E71K)-PAS(200) (PTE-2), a single-chain bispecific enzyme with a PAS linker and tag having enlarged substrate spectrum, and 10-2-C3(C59V/C227V)-PAS(200) (PTE-3), a stabilized homodimeric enzyme with a double PASylation tag (PAS-tag) to reduce plasma clearance. To assess in vivo efficacy, these engineered enzymes were tested in an anesthetized rat model post-VX exposure (~ 2LD50) in comparison with the recombinant wild-type PTE (PTE-1), dosed at 1.0 mg kg−1 i.v.: PTE-2 dosed at 1.3 mg kg−1 i.v. (PTE-2.1) and 2.6 mg kg−1 i.v. (PTE-2.2) and PTE-3 at 1.4 mg kg−1 i.v. Injection of the mutants PTE-2.2 and PTE-3, 5 min after s.c. VX exposure, ensured survival and prevented severe signs of a cholinergic crisis. Inhibition of erythrocyte acetylcholinesterase (AChE) could not be prevented. However, medulla oblongata and diaphragm AChE activity was partially preserved. All animals treated with the wild-type enzyme, PTE-1, showed severe cholinergic signs and died during the observation period of 180 min. PTE-2.1 resulted in the survival of all animals, yet accompanied by severe signs of OP poisoning. This study demonstrates for the first time efficient detoxification in vivo achieved with low doses of heterodimeric PTE-2 as well as PTE-3 and indicates the suitability of these engineered enzymes for the development of highly effective catalytic scavengers directed against VX.

Neurotoxic organophosphorus compounds (OPs) pose a severe threat if misused in military conflicts or by terrorists. Administration of a hydrolytic enzyme that can decompose the circulating nerve agent into non-toxic metabolites in vivo offers a potential treatment. A promising candidate is the homo-dimeric phosphotriesterase originating from the bacterium Brevundimonas diminuta (BdPTE), which has been subject to several rational and combinatorial protein design studies. A series of engineered versions with much improved catalytic efficiencies toward medically relevant nerve agents was described, carrying up to 22 mutations per enzyme subunit. To provide a basis for further rational design, we have determined the crystal structure of the highly active variant 10-2-C3(C59V/C227V)� stabilized against oxidation by substitution of two unpaired Cys residues�in complex with a substrate analogue at 1.5 Å resolution. Unexpectedly, the long loop segment (residues 253−276) that covers the active site shows a totally new conformation, with drastic structural deviations up to 19 Å, which was neither predicted in any of the preceding protein design studies nor seen in previous crystallographic analyses of less far evolved enzyme versions. Inspired by this structural insight, additional amino acid exchanges were introduced and their effects on protein stability as well as on the catalytic efficiency toward several neurotoxic OPs were investigated. Somewhat surprisingly, our results suggest that the presently available engineered version of BdPTE, in spite of its design on the basis of partly false structural assumptions, constitutes a fairly optimized enzyme for the detoxification of relevant OP nerve agents.

cART is highly efficient in suppressing HIV replication in HIV-infected patients and has resulted in a dramatic reduction in morbidity and mortality in HIV-infected people, yet it does not cure HIV infection. In addition, cART has several disadvantages.