N-Acetylaspartate (NAA) is the second most abundant organic metabolite in the brain, but its physiological significance remains enigmatic. Toxic NAA accumulation appears to be the key factor for neurological decline in Canavan disease—a fatal neurometabolic disorder caused by deficiency in the NAA-degrading enzyme aspartoacylase. To date clinical outcome of gene replacement therapy for this spongiform leukodystrophy has not met expectations. To identify the target tissue and cells for maximum anticipated treatment benefit, we employed comprehensive phenotyping of novel mouse models to assess cell type-specific consequences of NAA depletion or elevation. We show that NAA-deficiency causes neurological deficits affecting unconscious defensive reactions aimed at protecting the body from external threat. This finding suggests, while NAA reduction is pivotal to treat Canavan disease, abrogating NAA synthesis should be avoided. At the other end of the spectrum, while predicting pathological severity in Canavan disease mice, increased brain NAA levels are not neurotoxic per se. In fact, in transgenic mice overexpressing the NAA synthesising enzyme Nat8l in neurons, supra-physiological NAA levels were uncoupled from neurological deficits. In contrast, elimination of aspartoacylase expression exclusively in oligodendrocytes elicited Canavan disease like pathology. Although conditional aspartoacylase deletion in oligodendrocytes abolished expression in the entire CNS, the remaining aspartoacylase in peripheral organs was sufficient to lower NAA levels, delay disease onset and ameliorate histopathology. However, comparable endpoints of the conditional and complete aspartoacylase knockout indicate that optimal Canavan disease gene replacement therapies should restore aspartoacylase expression in oligodendrocytes. On the basis of these findings we executed an ASPA gene replacement therapy targeting oligodendrocytes in Canavan disease mice resulting in reversal of pre-existing CNS pathology and lasting neurological benefits. This finding signifies the first successful post-symptomatic treatment of a white matter disorder using an adeno-associated virus vector tailored towards oligodendroglial-restricted transgene expression.Electronic supplementary materialThe online version of this article (10.1007/s00401-017-1784-9) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

The ketone body, β-hydroxybutyrate (βOHB), is metabolised by the brain alongside the mandatory brain fuel glucose. To examine the extent and circumstances by which βOHB can supplement glucose metabolism, we studied guinea pig cortical brain slices using increasing concentrations of [U-C]D-βOHB in conjunction with [1-C]D-glucose under conditions of normo- and hypoglycaemia, as well as under high potassium (40 mmol/L K) depolarization in normo- and hypoglycaemic conditions. The contribution of βOHB to synthesis of GABA was also probed by inhibiting the synthesis of glutamine, a GABA precursor, with methionine sulfoximine (MSO). [U-C]D-βOHB at lower concentrations (0.25 and 1.25 mmol/L) stimulated mitochondrial metabolism, producing greater total incorporation of label into glutamate and GABA but did not have a similar effect in the cytosolic compartment where labelling of glutamine was reduced at 1.25 mmol/L [U-C]D-βOHB. At higher concentrations (2.5 mmol/L) [U-C]D-βOHB inhibited metabolism of [1-C]D-glucose, and reduced total label incorporation and total metabolite pools. When glucose levels were reduced, βOHB was able to partially restore the loss of glutamate and GABA caused by hypoglycaemia, but was not able to supplement levels of lactate, glutamine or alanine or to prevent the increase in aspartate. Under depolarizing conditions glucose was the preferred substrate over βOHB, even in hypoglycaemic conditions where comparatively less βOHB was incorporated except into aspartate isotopomers. Inhibition of glutamine synthesis with MSO had no significant effect on incorporation of label from [U-C]D-βOHB into GABA C2,1 indicating that the majority of this GABA was synthesized in GABAergic neurons from [U-C]D-βOHB rather than from Gln C4,5 imported from astrocytes.

[ C]Acetate is known to label metabolites preferentially in astrocytes rather than neurons and it has consequently been used as a marker for astrocytic activity. Recent discoveries suggest that control of acetate metabolism and its contributions to the synthesis of metabolites in brain is not as simple as first thought. Here, using a Guinea pig brain cortical tissue slice model metabolizing [1- C]D-glucose and [1,2- C]acetate, we investigated control of acetate metabolism and the degree to which it reflects astrocytic activity. Using a range of [1,2- C]acetate concentrations, we found that acetate is a poor substrate for metabolism and will inhibit metabolism of itself and of glucose at concentrations in excess of 2 mmol/L. By activating astrocytes using potassium depolarization, we found that use of [1,2- C]acetate to synthesize glutamine decreases significantly under these conditions showing that acetate metabolism does not necessarily reflect astrocytic activity. By blocking synthesis of glutamine using methionine sulfoximine, we found that significant amount of [1,2- C]acetate are still incorporated into GABA and its metabolic precursors in neurons, with around 30% of the GABA synthesized from [1,2- C]acetate likely to be made directly in neurons rather than from glutamine supplied by astrocytes. Finally, to test whether activity of the acetate metabolizing enzyme acetyl-CoA synthetase is under acetylation control in the brain, we incubated slices with the AceCS1 deacetylase silent information regulator 1 (SIRT1) activator SRT 1720 and showed consequential increased incorporation of [1,2- C]acetate into metabolites. Taken together, these data show that acetate metabolism is not directly nor exclusively related to astrocytic metabolic activity, that use of acetate is related to enzyme acetylation and that acetate is directly metabolized to a significant degree in GABAergic neurons. Changes in acetate metabolism should be interpreted as modulation of metabolism through changes in cellular energetic status via altered enzyme acetylation levels rather than simply as an adjustment of glial-neuronal metabolic activity.

Sirtuin proteins have a variety of intracellular targets, thereby regulating multiple biological pathways including neurodegeneration. However, relatively little is currently known about the role or expression of the 7 mammalian sirtuins in the central nervous system. Western blotting, PCR and ELISA are the main techniques currently used to measure sirtuin levels. To achieve sufficient sensitivity and selectivity in a multiplex-format, a targeted mass spectrometric assay was developed and validated for the quantification of all seven mammalian sirtuins (SIRT1-7). Quantification of all peptides was by multiple reaction monitoring (MRM) using three mass transitions per protein-specific peptide, two specific peptides for each sirtuin and a stable isotope labelled internal standard. The assay was applied to a variety of samples including cultured brain cells, mammalian brain tissue, CSF and plasma. All sirtuin peptides were detected in the human brain, with SIRT2 being the most abundant. Sirtuins were also detected in human CSF and plasma, and guinea pig and mouse tissues. In conclusion, we have successfully applied MRM mass spectrometry for the detection and quantification of sirtuin proteins in the central nervous system, paving the way for more quantitative and functional studies.

Toluene is a commonly abused inhalant that is easily accessible to adolescents. Despite the increasing incidence of use, our understanding of its long-term impact remains limited. Here, we used a range of techniques to examine the acute and chronic effects of toluene exposure on glutameteric and GABAergic function, and on indices of psychological function in adult rats after adolescent exposure. Metabolomics conducted on cortical tissue established that acute exposure to toluene produces alterations in cellular metabolism indicative of a glutamatergic and GABAergic profile. Similarly, in vitro electrophysiology in Xenopus oocytes found that acute toluene exposure reduced NMDA receptor signalling. Finally, in an adolescent rodent model of chronic intermittent exposure to toluene (10 000 ppm), we found that, while toluene exposure did not affect initial learning, it induced a deficit in updating that learning when response-outcome relationships were reversed or degraded in an instrumental conditioning paradigm. There were also group differences when more effort was required to obtain the reward; toluene-exposed animals were less sensitive to progressive ratio schedules and to delayed discounting. These behavioural deficits were accompanied by changes in subunit expression of both NMDA and GABA receptors in adulthood, up to 10 weeks after the final exposure to toluene in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and ventromedial striatum; regions with recognized roles in behavioural flexibility and decision-making. Collectively, our data suggest that exposure to toluene is sufficient to induce adaptive changes in glutamatergic and GABAergic systems and in adaptive behaviour that may underlie the deficits observed following adolescent inhalant abuse, including susceptibility to further drug-use.

Silent information regulators (SIRTs) have been shown to deacetylate a range of metabolic enzymes, including those in glycolysis and the Krebs cycle, and thus alter their activity. SIRTs require NAD 1 for their activity, linking cellular energy status to enzyme activity. To examine the impact of SIRT1 modulation on oxidative metabolism, this study tests the effect of ligands that are either SIRT-activating compounds (resveratrol and SRT1720) or SIRT inhibitors (EX527) on the metabolism of 13 C-enriched substrates by guinea pig brain cortical tissue slices with 13 C and 1 H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Resveratrol increased lactate labeling but decreased incorporation of 13 C into Krebs cycle intermediates, consistent with effects on AMPK and inhibition of the F 0 /F 1 -ATPase. By testing with resveratrol that was directly applied to astrocytes with a Seahorse analyzer, increased glycolytic shift and increased mitochondrial proton leak resulting from interactions of resveratrol with the mitochondrial electron transport chain were revealed. SRT1720, by contrast, stimulated incorporation of 13 C into Krebs cycle intermediates and reduced incorporation into lactate, although the inhibitor EX527 paradoxically also increased Krebs cycle 13 C incorporation. In summary, the various SIRT1 modulators show distinct acute effects on oxidative metabolism. The strong effects of resveratrol on the mitochondrial respiratory chain and on glycolysis suggest that caution should be used in attempts to increase bioavailability of this compound in the CNS. V C 2015 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.Key words: acetylation; EX-527; sirtuin Brain energy metabolism, which primarily reflects glucose oxidation, is expensive, with the brain using tenfold more energy that might be expected on a purely weight-for-weight basis. To minimize the expense, energy production is subjected to intense regulation, with the ability to respond depending on demand. One potential way in which this metabolism could be regulated is via acetylation of the major enzymes involved in glucose metabolism. Lysine acetylation is a common posttranslational modification second only to phosphorylation (Minguez et al., 2012), and acetylation is known to have major effects on protein activity (Guan and Xiong, 2010;Xiong and Guan, 2012). Deacetylation of enzymes is performed by silent information regulators (SIRTs), of which there are several major forms in the brain. SIRTs, 1, 2, 3, and 5 are the SIRTs most likely to be involved in protein deacetylation. Although many enzymes are acetylated, it is not fully clear what role acetylation plays in the activity of individual enzymes or, in some cases, which SIRT might be involved in deacetylating which enzyme.SIRTs are NAD 1 -requiring enzymes activated by NAD 1 and inhibited by nicotinamide, making them responsive to cellular energy status (Canto and Auwerx, 2012). SIRT1 activity is altered by caloric restriction (Chen et al., 2008), and, conversely, activation of SIRT1

Ethanol is a known neuromodulatory agent with reported actions at a range of neurotransmitter receptors. Here, we used an indirect approach, measuring the effect of alcohol on metabolism of [3-13C]pyruvate in the adult Guinea pig brain cortical tissue slice and comparing the outcomes to those from a library of ligands active in the GABAergic system as well as studying the metabolic fate of [1,2-13C]ethanol. Ethanol (10, 30 and 60 mM) significantly reduced metabolic flux into all measured isotopomers and reduced all metabolic pool sizes. The metabolic profiles of these three concentrations of ethanol were similar and clustered with that of the α4β3δ positive allosteric modulator DS2 (4-Chloro-N-[2-(2-thienyl)imidazo[1,2a]-pyridin-3-yl]benzamide). Ethanol at a very low concentration (0.1 mM) produced a metabolic profile which clustered with those from inhibitors of GABA uptake, and ligands showing affinity for α5, and to a lesser extent, α1-containing GABA(A)R. There was no measureable metabolism of [1,2-13C]ethanol with no significant incorporation of 13C from [1,2-13C]ethanol into any measured metabolite above natural abundance, although there were measurable effects on total metabolite sizes similar to those seen with unlabeled ethanol. The reduction in metabolism seen in the presence of ethanol is therefore likely to be due to its actions at neurotransmitter receptors, particularly α4β3δ receptors, and not because ethanol is substituting as a substrate or because of the effects of ethanol catabolites acetaldehyde or acetate. We suggest that the stimulatory effects of very low concentrations of ethanol are due to release of GABA via GAT1 and the subsequent interaction of this GABA with local α5-containing, and to a lesser extent, α1-containing GABA(A)R.

The inhibitory neurotransmitter γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA) acts through various types of receptors in the central nervous system. GABAρ receptors, defined by their characteristic pharmacology and presence of ρ subunits in the channel structure, are poorly understood and their role in the cortex is ill-defined. Here, we used a targeted pharmacological, NMR-based functional metabolomic approach in Guinea pig brain cortical tissue slices to identify a distinct role for these receptors. We compared metabolic fingerprints generated by a range of ligands active at GABAρ and included these in a principal components analysis with a library of other metabolic fingerprints obtained using ligands active at GABAA and GABAB, with inhibitors of GABA uptake and with compounds acting to inhibit enzymes active in the GABAergic system. This enabled us to generate a metabolic "footprint" of the GABAergic system which revealed classes of metabolic activity associated with GABAρ which are distinct from other GABA receptors. Antagonised GABAρ produce large metabolic effects at extrasynaptic sites suggesting they may be involved in tonic inhibition.