A meta-analysis (435 studies, k = 994, N > 61,000) of empirical research on the effects of feedback on student learning was conducted with the purpose of replicating and expanding the Visible Learning research (Hattie and Timperley, 2007; Hattie, 2009; Hattie and Zierer, 2019) from meta-synthesis. Overall results based on a random-effects model indicate a medium effect (d = 0.48) of feedback on student learning, but the significant heterogeneity in the data shows that feedback cannot be understood as a single consistent form of treatment. A moderator analysis revealed that the impact is substantially influenced by the information content conveyed. Furthermore, feedback has higher impact on cognitive and motor skills outcomes than on motivational and behavioral outcomes. We discuss these findings in the light of the assumptions made in The power of feedback (Hattie and Timperley, 2007). In general, the results suggest that feedback has rightly become a focus of teaching research and practice. However, they also point toward the necessity of interpreting different forms of feedback as independent measures.
The term “student feedback” is often used synonymously with evaluation, assessment, or ratings of teaching, but can be conceptually delimitated from these concepts, distinguishing formative and summative aspects. Obtaining feedback is a core component of teachers’ professional development. It is the basis for critical self-reflection, a prerequisite of reducing discrepancies between one’s performance and set goals, a tool to identify blind spots, and a means of correcting false self-assessments. Student feedback opens up opportunities for teachers to improve on their teaching by comparing students’ perspectives on instructional quality to their own perspectives. Feedback can also help teachers to implement democratic principles, and experience self-efficacy. Conditions are discussed that need to be fulfilled for student feedback to be successful.
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