The competition-related provisions in the TRIPS Agreement were very much influenced by the context in which the Agreement was concluded. The inclusion of competition provisions served a specific purpose. Competition law was basically seen as a tool to facilitate the transfer of technology. Twenty years after the entry into force of TRIPS, the legal landscape within which IPRs are exercised has experienced tremendous changes on the IP front, as well as on the competition law front. IP protection tends to be raised beyond the minimum standards of TRIPS, questionable protection has been granted specially in the field of patents, enforcement mechanisms and remedies have been strengthened and IP portfolios are strategically used in the markets. From an international perspective, higher IP standards have been exported through bilateral and regional trade agreements. Competition law is developing at a very fast speed, especially in emerging and developing economies. Moreover, competition law and IP laws are increasingly understood as being complementary to each other. A strict and “conflict oriented” reading of TRIPS’ competition provisions does not help to cope with the new strategies of innovation and the new forms of use of IPRs. We argue in this paper that a flexible reading of the competition-related provisions in TRIPS provides enough room for applying competition law as an innovation instrument. Hence, the application of competition law to combat IP-related restraints of competition that inhibit innovation would be covered by the rationale of the TRIPS Agreement just as much as an application of competition law aimed at enhancing access to and dissemination of IP-protected products
The Internet of Things is advancing as a new technological paradigm with enormous economic and societal implications. Network connectivity provides the basis. With this in mind, past and current conflicts surrounding the licensing and enforcement of standard essential patents (SEPs) in the information and communications technology (ICT) sector cast a shadow over IoT development. Focusing on the European approach based on competition law, this article explores the extent to which the existing legal framework, which has been mainly developed against the backdrop of problems in the mobile industry, will be capable of responding adequately to the challenges raised by the IoT.
La producción de hidrógeno a partir de agua mediante el empleo de semiconductores cerámicos con propiedades fotocatalíticas ha adquirido especial relevancia en los últimos años, debido a su potencial uso para la obtención de hidrógeno de un modo directo y limpio. En la búsqueda de nuevos materiales que presenten propiedades fotocatalíticas en la región visible del espectro solar, el dopado con metales de transición ha demostrado ser un método eficaz de adecuar los valores de band gap del semiconductor. En este trabajo se aborda el estudio del efecto de la adición de distintos dopantes (Fe, Ni, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu) sobre la estructura y valor de band gap del Bi 4 Ti 3 O 12 , con el objetivo de mejorar su actividad fotocatalítica y hacerlo activo en el visible. En este sentido se han preparado materiales dopados basados en BIT por procesamiento en estado sólido, obteniéndose distintas proporciones de una fase adicional con estructura tipo silenita, Bi 12 TiO 20 . Como consecuencia del dopado se produce un desplazamiento de los espectros de absorción a mayores longitudes de onda, y por tanto a menores valores del band gap. Los valores obtenidos de los band gaps son bastante prometedores para muchas de las composiciones, promoviendo el estudio de sus propiedades fotocatalíticas. Palabras clave: Fotocatálisis, dopado, Bi 4 Ti 3 O 12 , band gap, UV-visible Preparation of Photocatalytic Materials Based on Bi 4 Ti 3 O 12 Doped with Transition MetalsThe production of hydrogen from water using ceramic semiconductors with photocatalytic properties has gained special relevance in the last years, due to their potential use for the generation of hydrogen in a direct and clean way. Doping with transition metals has demonstrated to be an effective method to obtain new active photocatalysts in the visible range of the solar spectrum by changing the band gap of the material. In this paper we study the effect of the addition of various dopants (Fe, Ni, Cr, Mn, Co, Cu) in the structure and band gap of Bi 4 Ti 3 O 12 , in order to improve its photocatalytic activity and make it visible light active. Accordingly, doped BIT based materials have been obtained by solid state processing and different amounts of an additional phase with sillenite structure, Bi 12 TiO 20 , have been detected. With the dopant a shift of the absorption spectra is produced towards higher wavelengths and consequently towards lower band gap values. The band gap values obtained for many of the prepared compositions are quite promising, promoting the study of their catalytic properties. Keywords: Photocatalyst, doping, Bi 4 Ti 3 O 12 , band gap, UV-visible INTRODUCCIÓNEn las últimas décadas se ha realizado un gran esfuerzo para desarrollar materiales fotocatalizadores heterogéneos que presenten alta actividad fotocatalítica y un potencial uso tanto en la eliminación de sustancias nocivas como para la generación solar de hidrógeno por ruptura de la molécula de agua (1-5). Esta última aplicación como vector energético es un elemento clave en la generación de energía des...
Típicamente el Óxido de Titanio se incorpora a la formulación de varistores basados en ZnO dopado con Bi 2 O 3 para favorecer un crecimiento de los granos de ZnO, lo que determina su aplicación en dispositivos de bajo voltaje. Sin embargo su incorporación en formulaciones basadas en el ternario ZnO-Bi 2 O 3 -Sb 2 O 3 (sistema ZBS), características de aplicaciones de alto voltaje, es algo que apenas se ha analizado. En este trabajo se ha comprobado que lejos de favorecer el crecimiento de los granos de ZnO, la incorporación de TiO 2 a sistemas basados en dicho ternario ZBS lleva a un mayor control de la microestructura de estos electrocerámicos, y esto además se traduce en una apreciable mejoría de su respuesta eléctrica. Typically Titanium oxide is added to the formulation of Bi 2 O 3 -doped ZnO based varistors to enhance the growth of ZnO grains, thus allowing their application in low voltage devices. However its incorporation to formulation based on the ZnOBi 2 O 3 -Sb 2 O 3 (ZBS system), characteristic of high voltage applications has not been analyzed jet. In this contribution it has been verified that far from promoting the ZnO grain growth, the incorporation of TiO 2 to varistor formulations based on this ZBS ternary system leads to a better control of the varistor microstructure, which in turns causes an appreciable improvement of its electrical response.Key words: ZnO varistors, microstructure, spinel, grain growth. INTRODUCCIÓNLos varistores, o resistores variables, son dispositivos de estado sólido cuya resistencia es dependiente del voltaje, corriente o polaridad (1-3). El varistor cerámico es de gran importancia tecnológica por sus características eléctricas no lineales, lo que permite que sea utilizado como interruptor reversible en circuitos de estado sólido con la capacidad adicional de almacenar energía. Concretamente los varistores basados en Óxido de Cinc dopado con Bi 2 O 3 son los más comunes por su amplio rango de voltaje y su elevado rendimiento no lineal (1). La formulación de estos cerámicos basados en ZnO comprende un complejo sistema multicomponente en el cual los dopantes juegan un papel muy importante, y debido a que el comportamiento varistor se origina en la estructura electrónica de los bordes de grano, la manipulación y el control de la microestructura en los bordes de grano se ve reflejada directamente en el desempeño eléctrico del varistor (4-8). Así por ejemplo para aplicaciones de alto voltaje se requiere de una microestructura fina constituida por pequeños granos de ZnO, para lo cual se incorpora Sb 2 O 3 como inhibidor del crecimiento de dichos granos, sistema ZnO-Bi 2 O 3 -Sb 2 O 3 (9-12). Por el contrario los varistores de bajo voltaje se caracterizan por una microestructura de granos gruesos, y para ello se suele añadir TiO 2 como dopante promotor del crecimiento de grano, sistema ZnO-Bi 2 O 3 -TiO 2 (13-17). En este último caso se ha Vol 51, 1, 61-66, Enero-Febrero 2012 ISSN 0366-3175. eISSN 2173-0431. doi: 10.3989/cyv.092012 comprobado que los iones de Titanio se distri...
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