Theories of human development and learning provide an essential framework in which to understand the mechanisms involved in the process of formal instruction as a specific form of teaching and learning in the school setting. The sociocultural theory of development, founded on the works of Lev Vygotsky, espouses the view that social interaction among two or more people is the greatest motivating force in human development. Communication, via the use of language, provides one of the most effective means of social interaction. By collaborating toward a common cultural goal, people co-construct new knowledge by building on each participant's contribution. Based on the main tenets of sociocultural theory, the following eight interrelated principles for instruction are presented, namely, that it should be: mediated; discursive; collaborative; responsive; contextualized; activity-oriented; developmental; and integrated.
Although the importance of professional development for improved student learning is widely recognized and many studies have been devoted to enhancing its effectiveness, the specific mechanism underlying teacher learning and how it translates into actual classroom practices are not well understood. This paper is an attempt to fill this gap in understanding by grounding professional development models in two theories of human development. Adopting a theoretical stance provides an explanation of the processes underlying teacher development. In addition, theories also allow an understanding of what factors might contribute to effective professional development implementation. The social cognitive theory and the sociocultural theory are chosen based on numerous empirical studies indicating their validity in explaining and predicting human development and change. These theories provide foundations for understanding why professional development leads to teacher development and guidelines for translating teacher learning into improved classroom instruction.
Professional development is defined as the main route to quality teaching, which in turn leads to improved learning for all students. Because the real challenges of professional development become apparent only after the implementation process has begun, the present paper focuses on integrating professional development experiences with classroom practices. The challenges of implementation increase as the student population becomes more diversified due to demographic changes. With Vygotsky's views of development as theoretical background, six principles of effective professional development implementation are outlined for teachers working in classrooms that are inhabited by culturally and linguistically diverse students. These six principles focus on the mediational nature of human development and learning.
A reconceptualization of the zone of proximal development (ZPD) is proposed by introducing the notion of dialogicality and voice. Drawing on Bakhtin's semiotics, it is argued that the dialogical interactions occurring within the ZPD must be understood in a larger context to go beyond the visible and audible participants. More specifically, in addition to the first voice of the more capable participant and the second voice of the less competent participant, there is a third voice that serves as an immediate agenda of the ZPD. The third voice exerts its influence through the first voice by mediating the latter's intrapsychological functioning. The compatibility between the agenda of the third voice and the developmental goals of the zone determines whether the progression through the ZPD is enhanced or constrained. Standardized testing is given as an example of the third voice with a focus on its compatibility with the developmental goal of the ZPD.Keywords Vygotsky . The zone of proximal development . Socio-cultural theories of development . Dialogicality . VoiceOne of the major concepts proposed by Vygotsky, and the most often investigated and cited in educational literature (Ageyev 2003), is the zone of proximal development (ZPD). As Bruner (1987Bruner ( , 2004 notes, this concept is not only "stunning" on its own, but it also connects all of Vygotsky's ideas and thoughts regarding the "moving inward" of psychological functions. The implications derived from this theory for the teaching and learning process are also diverse (e.g., scaffolded instruction). A highly influential and welldeveloped theory as it is, like any theory, Vygotsky's ZPD may be revised for an improved Educ Psychol Rev (
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