Native plant species are routinely planted or sown in ecological restoration projects, but successful establishment and survival depend on where and how seeds are collected. Research suggests that it is important to use locally adapted seeds. Local populations often show a home-site advantage and non-local genotypes may be maladapted to local environmental conditions. Furthermore, intraspecific hybridisation of local and non-local genotypes may have a negative impact on the genetic structure of local populations via mechanisms such as outbreeding depression. Many species show a strong small-scale genetic differentiation between different habitats so that matching habitats of the restoration and donor site can be more important than minimizing geographical separation. It is a challenge to identify appropriate seed sources because strong small-scale population differentiation makes it difficult to delineate geographically defined seed zones to which seed exchange should be limited. Moreover, it is important to consider the genetic diversity of introduced material because it may be crucial to avoid genetic bottlenecks, inbreeding depression and poor establishment of plant populations. Repeated propagation in stock, which is often required to obtain a sufficient amount of seeds, can further reduce genetic diversity and may select for particular genotypes. Negative impacts of improper seed choice for nursery planting stock may become detectable only after many years, especially in long-lived and slow growing plants. Although scientific information on many species remains limited, the increasing demand for translocation of seed means that mandatory regulations are necessary. Guidelines should prescribe a specification of seed provenance, a record of genetic diversity of wild collections and rules for subsequent processing such as direct transfer and propagation of stock or seed orchards. We use a literature review to evaluate current legislation and to develop recommendations for herbaceous and woody species.
Dietary information was reviewed for 22 bird species typically found in farmland areas across Europe using 100 references from the UK and other European countries for which quantitative data were presented. The number of studies and degree of taxonomic resolution available varied considerably between the species and, for some, dietary information was only available prior to agricultural intensification and may be unrepresentative of current feeding habits. Consequently, some caution is required in interpreting the results because of the different methods of data collection between the studies and the biases in analytical techniques for prey detectability. Food availability was rarely quantified in the study areas, and diet may have reflected availability or preference. Plant families and invertebrate orders were ranked in their importance separately for adult diet in the breeding and nonbreeding seasons and for chicks. The most important plant families overall were Poaceae, Polygonaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Cruciferae, Compositae, Chenopodiaceae and Labiatae, although the last two were unimportant for chicks. A number of key species were also identified. Similarities in dietary preferences were observed among Fringillidae (finches) and members of the Columbidae (doves and pigeons). Fringillidae and Carduelis cannabina (linnet) were associated with plants that occur in seminatural habitats, while Emberiza citrinella (yellowhammer), Phasianidae (partridges) and Columbidae were shown to be more closely associated with plants of agricultural environments. The most important invertebrate orders overall were Coleoptera adults, Hemiptera adults, Arachnida, Lepidoptera larvae/pupae, Diptera adults, Lepidoptera adults, Diptera larvae/pupae and Hymenoptera adults. During the nonbreeding season, a smaller number of invertebrate taxa were important. For adults in the breeding season and for chicks, there were 10 families of invertebrate that were important for four or more bird species (Aphididae, Carabidae, Chrysomelidae, Curculionidae, Elateridae, Formicidae, Scarabeidae, Staphylinidae, Tenthredinidae and Tipulidae). In the nonbreeding season, Curculionidae and Lumbricidae were important in the diet of three species. A few species exhibited a narrow diet range, selecting invertebrates from only one or two families. Similarities in dietary composition were observed among closely related bird species, while that of chicks and adults sometimes differed.
Different semi-natural habitats occur on farmland, and it is the vegetation's traits and structure that subsequently determine their ability to support natural enemies and their associated contribution to conservation biocontrol. New habitats can be created and existing ones improved with agri-environment scheme funding in all EU member states. Understanding the contribution of each habitat type can aid the development of conservation control strategies. Here we review the extent to which the predominant habitat types in Europe support natural enemies, whether this results in enhanced natural enemy densities in the adjacent crop and whether this leads to reduced pest densities. Considerable variation exists in the available information for the different habitat types and trophic levels. Natural enemies within each habitat were the most studied, with less information on whether they were enhanced in adjacent fields, while their impact on pests was rarely investigated. Most information was available for woody and herbaceous linear habitats, yet not for woodland which can be the most common semi-natural habitat in many regions. While the management and design of habitats offer potential to stimulate conservation biocontrol, we also identified knowledge gaps. A better understanding of the relationship between resource availability and arthropod communities across habitat types, the spatiotemporal distribution of resources in the landscape and interactions with other factors that play a role in pest regulation could contribute to an informed management of semi-natural habitats for biocontrol. © 2016 Society of Chemical Industry.
Semi-natural habitats are integral to most agricultural areas and have the potential to support ecosystem services, especially biological control and pollination by supplying resources for the invertebrates providing these services and for soil conservation by preventing erosion and runoff. Some habitats are supported through agri-environment scheme funding in the European Union, but their value for ecosystem service delivery has been questioned. An improved understanding of previous research approaches and outcomes will contribute to the development of more sustainable farming systems, improve experimental designs and highlight knowledge gaps especially for funders and researchers. Here we compiled a systematic map to allow for the first time a review of the quantity of evidence collected in Europe that semi-natural habitats support biological control, pollination and soil conservation. A literature search selected 2252 publications, and, following review, 270 met the inclusion criteria and were entered into the database. Most publications were of pest control (143 publications) with less on pollination (78 publications) or soil-related aspects (31). For pest control and pollination, most publications reported a positive effect of semi-natural habitats. There were weaknesses in the evidence base though because of bias in study location and the crops, whilst metrics (e.g. yield) valued by end users were seldom measured. Hedgerows, woodland and grassland were the most heavily investigated semi-natural habitats, and the wider landscape composition was often considered. Study designs varied considerably yet only 24% included controls or involved manipulation of semi-natural habitats. Service providers were commonly measured and used as a surrogate for ecosystem service delivery. Key messages for policymakers and funders are that they should encourage research that includes more metrics required by end users, be prepared to fund longer-term studies (61% were of only 1-year duration) and investigate the role of soils within semi-natural habitats in delivering ecosystem services.
Research has shown a close correlation between the decline of the UK Skylark Alauda arvensis population and the replacement of spring-sown cereals with winter-sown varieties, in which advanced sward development prevents successful multiple nesting attempts and reduces access for foraging. Widescale reversal of sowing times is unlikely for commercial reasons, so research has recently focused on ways of manipulating the sward structure of winter wheat to prolong access to nest-sites and food. An RSPB pilot study investigated leaving small 'undrilled patches' in otherwise conventionally managed winter wheat crops. This option was later incorporated into a fully replicated experimental design, as part of the Sustainable Arable Farming For an Improved Environment (SAFFIE) project. This large consortium-led project aims to test solutions for improving biodiversity within wintercereal-dominated rotations. The experiment described here ran over 2002-3, with three field-scale 'treatments' on 15 sites in the first year. The treatments compare (1) conventional winter wheat, (2) winter wheat sown in double-normal width (25 cm) wide-spaced rows (WSR) and (3) winter wheat with two 4-m by 4-m undrilled patches per hectare (UP). Results from the 2002 breeding season showed that undrilled patch treatments supported more breeding Skylarks for longer, most likely by aiding accessibility of food. WSR rows were little used by Skylarks and did not improve the abundance of favoured seed and invertebrate food items over conventional crops. Nesting performance and foraging patterns are discussed with reference to invertebrate food abundance and its accessibility, as determined by sward structure.
Pesticides have been cited as one of the major drivers of pollinator loss. However, little is known about pesticide impacts on natural populations of native honey bee species. This study looked into the effect of pesticides with respect to oxidative stress in the laboratory and in field populations of two native Indian honey bee species (Apis dorsata and A. cerana) by examining a combination of biomarkers, e.g., superoxide dismutase, catalase and xanthine oxidase. A significant upregulation of all three biomarkers was observed in both treated individuals in laboratory experiments and field populations sampled from a pesticide use gradient. This study reports, for the first time, an increase in expression of xanthine oxidase in an invertebrate system (honey bees) exposed to pesticides.
Citizen science is an increasingly popular way of engaging volunteers in the collection of scientific data. Despite this, data quality remains a concern and there is little published evidence about the accuracy of records generated by citizen scientists. Here we compare data generated by two British citizen science projects, Blooms for Bees and BeeWatch, to determine the ability of volunteer recorders to identify bumblebee ( Bombus ) species. We assessed recorders’ identification ability in two ways–as recorder accuracy (the proportion of expert-verified records correctly identified by recorders) and recorder success (the proportion of recorder-submitted identifications confirmed correct by verifiers). Recorder identification ability was low (<50% accuracy; <60% success), despite access to project specific bumblebee identification materials. Identification ability varied significantly depending on bumblebee species, with recorders most able to correctly identify species with distinct appearances. Blooms for Bees recorders (largely recruited from the gardening community) were markedly less able to identify bumblebees than BeeWatch recorders (largely individuals with a more specific interest in bumblebees). Within both projects, recorders demonstrated an improvement in identification ability over time. Here we demonstrate and quantify the essential role of expert verification within citizen science projects, and highlight where resources could be strengthened to improve recorder ability.
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