Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection results in different patterns

To identify viral determinants of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) virulence, two pairs of reciprocal recombinants constructed from a pathogenic (SlVmac239) and a nonpathogenic (SIVmaclAll) molecular clone of SIV were tested in rhesus macaques. A large 6.2-kb fragment containing gag, pol, env, and the regulatory genes from each of the cloned (parental) viruses was exchanged to produce one pair of recombinant viruses (designated SIVmaclA11/239gag-env/lA11 and SIVmac239/lAllgag-env/239 to indicate the genetic origins of the 5'/internal/3' regions, respectively, of the virus). A smaller 1.4-kb fragment containing the external env domain of each of the parental viruses was exchanged to create the second pair (SlVmaclAll/ 239env/1A11 and SIVmac239/lAllenv/239) of recombinant viruses. Each of the two parental and four recombinant viruses was inoculated intravenously into four rhesus macaques, and all 24 animals were viremic by 4 weeks postinoculation (p.i.). Virus could not be isolated from peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC)

Three infectious, attenuated molecular clones of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIVmac) were tested for viral and host determinants of protective immunity. The viruses differed in degree of virulence from highly attenuated to moderately attenuated to partially attenuated. Levels of immune stimulation and antiviral immunity were measured in rhesus macaques inoculated 2 years previously with these viruses. Monkeys infected with the highly attenuated or moderately attenuated viruses had minimal lymphoid hyperplasia, normal CD4/CD8 ratios, low levels of SIV-specific antibodies, and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity against p55gag (Gag) or gp160env (Env). Monkeys infected with the partially attenuated virus had moderate to marked lymphoid hyperplasia, normal CD4/CD8 ratios, high levels of SIV-specific antibodies, and cytotoxic T-lymphocyte activity against both Gag and Env. After pathogenic virus challenge, monkeys immunized with the partially attenuated virus had 100- to 1,000-fold-lower viral load in peripheral blood mononuclear cells and lymph node mononuclear cells than naive control animals. One of four monkeys immunized with the highly attenuated virus and two of four monkeys immunized with the moderately attenuated virus developed similarly low viral loads after challenge. These three attenuated strains of SIV induced a spectrum of antiviral immunity that was inversely associated with their degree of attenuation. Only the least attenuated virus induced resistance to challenge infection in all immunized monkeys.

Both alpha beta and gamma delta T-cell populations and natural killer (NK) cells include cytotoxic, interferon (IFN)-gamma-producing lymphocytes that actively respond to viral infections. We show here that all three populations can provide "natural resistance" to viruses very early in infection and describe how the T-cell populations are modulated to provide this function. gamma delta T cells were shown to play a role in controlling vaccinia virus (VV) infections, as VV grew to much higher titers in gamma delta T-cell knockout mice than in normal mice 3-4 days post-infection. Our studies of the alpha beta T-cell responses to viruses revealed an interactive network of T cells that is modulated substantially during systemic infections. There is an induction phase associated with a massive virus-specific CD8 T-cell response, an apoptosis phase during which the T cells become sensitized to activation-induced cell death (AICD), a silencing phase, during which the T-cell number and activation state is reduced, and, finally, a memory phase associated with the very stable preservation of virus-specific memory cytotoxic T-lymphocyte precursors (pCTL). Infection of mice immune to one virus with a heterologous virus leads to a selective expansion of memory CTL cross-reacting between the two viruses, but, after homeostasis is again established, there is a quantitative reduction and qualitative alteration of memory to the first virus. Our results suggest that memory alpha beta T cells cross-reactive between heterologous viruses mediate both immunopathology and protective immunity at early stages of the second virus infection. Thus, memory alpha beta T cells can, like gamma delta T cells and NK cells, provide natural immunity to viral infections.

Here we provide the first report of protection against a vaginal challenge with a highly virulent simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) by using a vaccine vector. New poliovirus vectors based on Sabin 1 and 2 vaccine strain viruses were constructed, and these vectors were used to generate a series of new viruses containing SIV gag, pol, env, nef, and tat in overlapping fragments. Two cocktails of 20 transgenic polioviruses (SabRV1-SIV and SabRV2-SIV) were inoculated into seven cynomolgus macaques. All monkeys produced substantial anti-SIV serum and mucosal antibody responses. SIV-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocyte responses were detected in three of seven monkeys after vaccination. All 7 vaccinated macaques, as well as 12 control macaques, were challenged vaginally with pathogenic SIVmac251. Strikingly, four of the seven vaccinated animals exhibited substantial protection against the vaginal SIV challenge. All 12 control monkeys became SIV positive. In two of the seven SabRV-SIV-vaccinated monkeys we found no virological evidence of infection following challenge, indicating that these two monkeys were completely protected. Two additional SabRV-SIV-vaccinated monkeys exhibited a pronounced reduction in postacute viremia to <10 3 copies/ml, suggesting that the vaccine elicited an effective cellular immune response. Three of six control animals developed clinical AIDS by 48 weeks postchallenge. In contrast, all seven vaccinated monkeys remained healthy as judged by all clinical parameters. These results demonstrate the efficacy of SabRV as a potential human vaccine vector, and they show that the use of a vaccine vector cocktail expressing an array of defined antigenic sequences can be an effective vaccination strategy in an outbred population.

These observations suggest a complex interplay between virus levels, breastmilk chemokines, and mother-to-child HIV-1 transmission and may provide insight into developing novel strategies to reduce infection across mucosal surfaces.

An infectious, virulence-attenuated molecular clone of simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), SIVMAC-IA119 was derived from an SIV isolate that causes fatal immunodeficiency in rhesus macaques. When inoculated intravenously in rhesus macaques, SIVMAC IAII induced transient viremia (1 to 6 weeks) without clinical disease and a persistent humoral antibody response. The antibodies were directed mainly against the viral envelope glycoproteins, as determined by immunoblots and virus neutralization. The potential of this virulence-attenuated virus to protect against intravenous challenge with a pathogenic SIVMAC strain was assessed. Five rhesus macaques were each given two intravenous inoculations with SIVMACIAI1 7 months

Human leukocyte antigen (HLA) molecules regulate the cellular immune system and may be determinants of infant susceptibility to human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) infection. Molecular HLA typing for class I alleles was performed on infants followed in a Kenyan perinatal cohort. Early HIV-1 infection status was defined as infection occurring at birth or month 1, while late infection via breast milk was defined as first detection of HIV-1 after 1 month of age. Likelihood ratio tests based on a proportional hazards model adjusting for maternal CD4 T cell count and HIV-1 viral load at 32 weeks of gestation were used to test associations between infant allelic variation and incident HIV-1 infection. Among 433 infants, 76 (18%) were HIV-1 infected during 12 months of follow-up. HLA B*18 was associated with a significantly lower risk of early HIV-1 transmission [relative risk (RR) = 0.26; 95% confidence interval (CI) 0.04-0.82], and none of the 24 breastfeeding infants expressing HLA B*18 who were uninfected at month 1 acquired HIV-1 late via breast milk. We observed a trend toward increased early HIV-1 acquisition for infants presenting HLA A*29 (RR = 2.0; 95% CI 1.0-3.8) and increased late HIV-1 acquisition via breast milk for both Cw*07 and Cw*08 (RR = 4.0; 95% CI 1.0-17.8 and RR = 7.2; 95% CI 1.2-37.3, respectively). HLA B*18 may protect breast-feeding infants against both early and late HIV-1 acquisition, a finding that could have implications for the design and monitoring of HIV-1 vaccines targeting cellular immune responses against HIV-1.