New antibacterial strategies are required in view of the increasing resistance of bacteria to antibiotics. One promising technique involves the photodynamic inactivation of bacteria. Upon exposure to light, a photosensitizer in bacteria can generate singlet oxygen, which oxidizes proteins or lipids, leading to bacteria death. To elucidate the oxidative processes that occur during killing of bacteria, Staphylococcus aureus was incubated with a standard photosensitizer, and the generation and decay of singlet oxygen was detected directly by its luminescence at 1,270 nm. At low bacterial concentrations, the time-resolved luminescence of singlet oxygen showed a decay time of 6 ؎ 2 s, which is an intermediate time for singlet oxygen decay in phospholipids of membranes (14 ؎ 2 s) and in the surrounding water (3.5 ؎ 0.5 s). Obviously, at low bacterial concentrations, singlet oxygen had sufficient access to water outside of S. aureus by diffusion. Thus, singlet oxygen seems to be generated in the outer cell wall areas or in adjacent cytoplasmic membranes of S. aureus. In addition, the detection of singlet oxygen luminescence can be used as a sensor of intracellular oxygen concentration. When singlet oxygen luminescence was measured at higher bacterial concentrations, the decay time increased significantly, up to Ϸ40 s, because of oxygen depletion at these concentrations. This observation is an important indicator that oxygen supply is a crucial factor in the efficacy of photodynamic inactivation of bacteria, and will be of particular significance should this approach be used against multiresistant bacteria.luminescence ͉ oxygen depletion ͉ Staphylococcus aureus

Bosnian refugee women adapted more quickly than their male partners to their host environments in Vienna and New York City because of their self-understanding and their traditional roles and social positions in the former Yugoslavia. Refugee women's integration into host societies has to be understood through their specific historical experiences. Bosnian women in exile today continue to be influenced by traditional role models that were prevalent in the former Yugoslavia's 20th-century patriarchal society. Family, rather than self-fulfillment through wage labor and emancipation, is the center of life for Bosnian women. In their new environment, Bosnian refugee women are pushed into the labor market and work in low-skill and low-paying jobs. Their participation in the labor market, however, is not increasing their emancipation in part because they maintain their traditional understanding of zena (women) in the patriarchal culture. While Bosnian women's participation in low-skill labor appeared to be individual families' decisions more in New York City than in Vienna, in the latter almost all Bosnian refugee women in my sample began to work in the black labor market because of restrictive employment policies. In contrast to men, women were relatively nonselective and willing to take any available job. Men, it seems, did not adapt as quickly as women to restrictions in the labor market and their loss of social status in both host societies. Despite their efforts, middle-class families in New York City and Vienna experienced substantial downward mobility in their new settings. Women's economic and social downward mobility in (re)settlement, however, did not significantly change the self-understanding of Bosnian women. Their families' future and advancements socially and economically, rather than the women's own independence and emancipation remained the most important aspect of their being. keywords Bosnian refugee women; gendered employment; self-perception of men and women; social mobility; patriarchy; family feminist review 73 2003 (86-103) c 2003 Feminist Review. 0141-7789/03 $15 www.feminist-review.com 86

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Barbara Franz is assistant professor of political science at Rider University, Lawrenceville, New Jersey.

Thousands of young Europeans have joined the jihad. This essay looks at the reasons why the holy war is so popular among this cohort. While failed integration policies and widespread online media recruitment remain crucial for understanding this popularity, these explanations alone are too simplistic. Personal knowledge of other young fighters and fundamentalist imams, a lack of guidance resulting from the absence of fathers, trauma, and a kind of “outsiderism” akin to the one seen among early Nazi recruits in the 1920s are also similarities found in many of the young volunteers’ biographies.

The continuous monitoring of vital signs has become an important supplement to traditional medical treatment to ensure the success of a therapy. Integrated health monitoring solutions based on existing health standards provide interoperability and enable healthcare providers and patients to exchange and access their data across institutional borders. This paper shows an integrated monitoring solution based on Continua and Integrating the Healthcare Enterprise, which has been tested by more than 130 patients and 14 healthcare institutions. According to user feedback, one recurring problem is the low battery life of smartphones due to high data traffic. Since the recently developed HL7 standard FHIR offers a resource efficient handling of web service connections, a possible approach to extend the monitoring solution to support FHIR.Comparing both solutions using data collected by 68 patients, it can be concluded that there is a significant decrease in data traffic when relying on a RESTful architecture in combination with FHIR. For productive use of the FHIR-based approach shown in this paper, security related concerns have to be taken into account in future work to ensure authenticity and authorization.

Refugee studies scholars have emphasised that refugee law has become immigration law in the North/Western world. This shift in perspective emphasises borders rather than the protection of people. Comparatively little analytical work, however, has been done on the implications these legal and political changes have had on individual refugees. This article addresses some of these effects by comparing asylum, residence, and socio-economic problems of Bosnian refugees in Austria and the USA. It explores the underlying rationale of reception policies and the settlement support schemes primarily responsible for determining refugees' status and eligibility for benefits. Though the two countries' refugee relief schemes, the Austrian Bund-Länder Aktion and the American public-private partnership of refugee resettlement, were significantly different (the former restricted legal employment, the latter promoted early economic self-sufficiency), the Bosnian refugees in my sample actually adapted in quite a similar way in both countries. Individual initiative was found to have a much stronger impact than state policy.

Opioid receptors (OR) are involved in many physiological and pathological immune functions. During recent years, the treatment of opiate addiction with methadone in HIV-positive and HIV-negative patients has become widely accepted. However, little is known on the occurrence and course of OR on lymphocytes of these individuals. The objective of the study was to detect and quantify OR on peripheral white blood cells (WBC) by fluorescence-activated cell sorting using polyclonal antibodies and reverse transcriptase polymerase chain reaction, and to assess the influence of HIV infection and methadone treatment. We compared OR levels in 80 HIV-positive homosexuals, 18 HIV-positive intravenous drug users (IVDU) treated with methadone, 18 HIV-negative IVDU receiving methadone and 25 healthy controls. HIV infection was shown to decrease the amount of OR on WBC, especially of the delta-subtype on lymphocytes and granulocytes. The decrease correlated with the duration of HIV-infection (P<0.01), and inversely with the HIV viral load (P<0.01). In contrast, chronic methadone administration led to a significant increase of OR exclusively in HIV-negative IVDU. In particular the delta-OR was increased by 31-, 62- and 42-fold on lymphocytes, monocytes and granulocytes of HIV-negative patients (each P<0.005), respectively, which was not observed in HIV-positive IVDU. Therefore, HIV seems to reduce OR particularly on lymphocytes and granulocytes regardless of the mode of HIV transmission. The quantification of OR on immune cells may help to elucidate the effects of opioid analogues in health and drug addiction.