Rivers are one of the main water resources for agricultural, drinking, environmental and industrial use. Water quality indices can and have been used to identify threats to water quality along a stream and contribute to better water resources management. There are many water quality indices for the assessment and use of surface water for drinking purposes. However, there is no well-established index for the assessment and direct use of river water for irrigation purposes. The aim of this study was to adopt the framework of the National Sanitation Foundation Water Quality Index (NSFWQI) and, with adjustments, apply it in a way which will conform to irrigation water quality requirements. To accomplish this, the NSFWQI parameters for drinking water use were amended to include water quality parameters suitable for irrigation. For each selected parameter, an individual weighting chart was generated according to the FAO 29 guideline. The NSFWQI formula was then used to calculate a final index value, and for each parameter an acceptable range in this value was determined. The new index was then applied to the Ghezel Ozan River in Iran as a case study. A forty five year record of water quality data (1966 to 2010) was collected from four hydrometery stations along the river. Water quality parameters including Na, Cl, pH, HCO3, EC, SAR and TDS were employed for water quality analysis using the adjusted NSFWQI formula. The results of this case study showed variation in water quality from the upstream to downstream ends of the river. Consistent monitoring of the river water quality and the establishment of a long term management plan were recommended for the protection of this valuable water resource.
Large scale centralised water, wastewater and stormwater systems have been implemented for over 100 years. These systems have provided a safe drinking water supply, efficient collection and disposal of wastewater to protect human health, and the mitigation of urban flood risk. The sustainability of current urban water systems is under pressure from a range of challenges which include: rapid population growth and resulting urbanisation, climate change impacts, and infrastructure that is ageing and reaching capacity constraints. To address these issues, urban water services are now being implemented with Integrated Urban Water Management (IUWM) and Water Sensitive Urban Design (WSUD) approaches. WSUD systems can deliver multiple benefits including water conservation, stormwater quality improvement, flood control, landscape amenity and a healthy living environment. These systems can be provided as stand-alone systems or in combination with centralised systems. These systems are still novel and thus face knowledge gaps that are impeding their mainstream uptake. Knowledge gaps cover technical, economic, social, and institutional aspects of their implementation. This paper is based on the outcomes of a comprehensive study conducted in South Australia which investigated impediments for mainstream uptake of WSUD, community perceptions of WSUD and potential of WSUD to achieve water conservation through the application of alternative resources, and in flood management. The outcomes are discussed in this paper for the benefit of water professionals engaged with WSUD planning, implementation, community consultation and regulation. Although the paper is based on a study conducted in South Australia, the comprehensive framework developed to conduct this detailed study and investigation can be adopted in any part of the world.
The harvesting, storage and reuse of stormwater from permeable pavement reservoirs provides an opportunity to alleviate water shortages in urban areas. Reservoirs may be filled with a range of basecourse aggregate materials that provide structural support to the pavement. The materials have the potential to affect the quality of stored water. This research investigated changes in water quality when water was stored in two types of basecourse aggregate. Synthetic stormwater was placed in permeable pavement reservoir models filled with dolomite aggregate or quartzite aggregate or control reservoirs with no aggregate. The influence of residence time was investigated by monitoring stored water quality for up to 144 h. Conductivity and pH increased in both aggregate-filled reservoirs. Total suspended solids and turbidity also increased in the aggregate-filled reservoirs, before falling to levels significantly lower than the control reservoirs. Levels of phosphorous and organic nitrogen were significantly lower in the aggregate-filled reservoirs after 144 h. Total zinc, copper and lead were reduced by 94–99% in the aggregate-filled reservoirs compared with the controls after 144 h storage.
Capillary irrigation systems have been investigated for some years as a means to deliver water to plants in container gardening. This review paper identifies that traditional capillary irrigation systems such as capillary wicks, capillary mats, and ebb and flow systems have been shown to produce higher crop yields and use less water than conventional irrigation methods. In addition, capillary irrigation offers an added advantage by reducing the volume of potentially harmful leachate into surrounding soil environments. However, these systems are basically limited to small pot sizes and are widely used for growing ornamental and nursery plants in glasshouse conditions. Further, the cost and complexity of Negative Pressure Difference Irrigation may have limited its practical use. Conversely, wicking beds (WBs) are low-tech and water-efficient systems which can be used for growing plants with different rooting depths. Irrespective of the wide acceptance of WBs among the growing community, this review recognises that there is no published research providing design recommendations for WBs and their expected performance relative to other irrigation systems. Therefore, some potential advantages of WBs are noted in the context of capillary irrigation research; however, a substantial knowledge gap exists relating to the optimised design and use of WBs.
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