Physicochemical parameters of surface water collected from six different points (P1 to P6) on River Sokoto were analysed during January (Dry Season) and August (Rainy Season), 2014 to determine its water quality using standard methods. The highest temperature of 25.6˚C was recorded by P1 in dry season while P5 recorded the highest value of 29.2˚C in rainy season. All the water samples were alkaline in dry season with the highest pH value of 8.50 in P5 and the least value of 8.02 in P6 whereas in rainy season, P1, P2 and P3 were slightly acidic while P5 and P6 were slightly neutral and P4 alkaline. The highest values of 510 µS/cm and 850.3 mg/l were recorded from P4 for electrical conductance and hardness respectively in the rainy season whereas in dry season, P5 and P4 had the highest values of 321 µS/cm and 282.8 mg/l respectively. The highest DO and BOD levels in dry season were 1.7 mg/l and 0.7 mg/l respectively in P1 and the least values were 0.7 mg/l and 0.2 mg/l respectively in P5. But in the rainy season, P6 recorded the highest DO value of 0.1 mg/l while P2 and P5 recorded the least value of 0.07 mg/l. For BOD, P5 had the highest value (2.13 mg/l) while P3 had the least value (0.20 mg/l). For COD, the highest value (230 mg/l) was found in P4 and P6 and the least value (30 mg/l) was found in P1 in dry season while in the rainy season, P2 had the highest COD value (1008 mg/l) and P4 had the least value of 32 mg/l. TDS and TSS values generally were higher in the rainy season than in the dry season due to higher amount of floating particles in the rainy season. While P1 and P6 recorded the highest values (800 mg/l and 700 mg/l respectively) in the rainy season, P4 recorded the least value of 100 mg/l in both seasons. The highest Chloride level was found in P4 in the dry (100 mg/l) and rainy (180 mg/l) seasons with the least level in P2 (35 mg/l) in dry season and in P1 and P2 with the least level of 60 mg/l in the rainy season. The highest concentration of Sulphate in P1 (220 mg/l) in dry * Corresponding author. M. I. O. Raji et al. 195 season was far above the highest concentration (124 mg/l) in the rainy season whereas highest concentration of Nitrate in dry season in P1 (19.7 mg/l) was somehow below the highest concentration in rainy season in P4 (28.1 mg/l). Phosphate and Ammonia had the highest values of 1.77 mg/l and 0.84 mg/l respectively in P5 in dry season while in rainy season, P6 and P4 had the highest values of 0.22 mg/l and 1.20 mg/l respectively. There was significant seasonal variation in some physicochemical parameters and most of the parameters were within permissible limits, thus, making the water suitable for irrigation purposes.

Characterization of a polymer is essential for determining its suitability for a particular purpose. Thermochemical properties of cashew gum (CSG) extracted from exudates of Anacardium occidentale L. and khaya gum (KYG) extracted from exudates of Khaya senegalensis were determined and compared with those of acacia gum BP (ACG). The polymers were subjected to different thermal and chemical analyses. Exudates of CSG contained higher amount of hydrophilic polymer. The pH of 2% w/v gum dispersions was in the order KYG < CSG < ACG. Calcium was the predominant ion in CSG while potassium was predominant in KYG. The FTIR spectra of CSG and KYG were similar and slightly different from that of ACG. Acacia and khaya gums exhibited the same thermal behaviour which is different from that of CSG. X-ray diffraction revealed that the three gums are the same type of polymer, the major difference being the concentration of metal ions. This work suggests the application of cashew gum for formulation of basic and oxidizable drugs while using khaya gum for acidic drugs.

95 % permeation in 135 min (in SGF) and 95 % permeation in 170 min (under SIF condition). Conclusion: Cashew gum is effective as a binder over a relatively wide range of concentrations to achieve fast drug release though with minimal permeation enhancement while prosopis gum is characterized by delayed drug release but enhanced permeation of the released drug.

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The United States Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) set limit of 200 faecal coliforms/ 100ml for bacterial contamination of surface water has frequently been exceeded due to agricultural runoff as nonpoint pollution. The study evaluated the effects of cattle rearers and or farmers, and cattle rearing on faecal contamination of water from River Sokoto. Water samples from six designated points on River Sokoto were assessed on monthly basis for faecal coliform and faecal streptococci from January to December, 2014 using faecal coliform/faecal streptococci ratio (FC/FS). The six points studied were namely P1, a point 5 metres away from farmland; P2, a point close to farmland; P3, a point close to residents along the riverside; P4, a point on stream drainage immediately from Sokoto Cement factory; P5, a point on the stream close to the river and P6, a point 5 metres away on the river. Very high mean concentrations of FC and FS were recorded at all sampling points with values exceeding surface water standards of 200 faecal coliform/100ml. While the highest mean FC value of 18,525 MPN/100ml (29.1%) was recorded at P3, the least value of 7,592 MPN/100ml (11.9%) was obtained at P2. Mean FS was recorded highest (2,350 MPN/100ml) at P5 (21.8%) and lowest (625 MPN/100ml) at P4 (5.8%). Mean FC/FS ratios of sampled water P1, P5 and P6 were < 4 (3.78, 3.95 and 3.95 respectively) indicating domestic animal contamination. However, P4 had the highest mean FC/FS ratio > 4 (11.53) indicating human contamination; P2 and P3 also had values > 4 (5.66 and 7.34 respectively) also pointing to human contamination. The FC/FS ratio identified domestic animal contamination sources but did not differentiate between domestic animal and human sources of contamination. Thus the limitatation of its use more as a regulatory tool than a diagnostic tool in identifying contamination sources. This study contributes in the existing literature by ascertaining the use of faecal coliforms and faecal streptococci ratio in the determination of sources of contamination of surface water for good water quality.

Coagulase-negative staphylococci (CoNS) are part of the normal microbial flora of the skin and mucous membranes. Nasal colonization with antibiotic-resistant CoNS represents both a risk factor for the colonized individual and their immediate contacts. This study determines the antibiotics susceptibility pattern and resistance phenotypes to a specific group of antimicrobial agents in CoNS isolate from the nares of adult patients from Ahmadu Bello University Teaching Hospital (ABUTH), Zaria, Kaduna State, Nigeria. One hundred and twenty-three presumptive staphylococci isolate from nasal colonization surveillance cultures of adult patients were collected from the diagnostic medical microbiology laboratory of ABUTH, Zaria and were characterized using standard microbiological procedures and their susceptibility to commonly used antimicrobial agents determined using the guideline of European committee on antimicrobial susceptibility testing (EUCAST). A total of 60 of the 123 (49%) staphylococcal isolate were CoNS. Characterization of the sixty CoNS isolate showed that the most predominant species were S. chromogenes (30.0%), S xylosus (15.0%) and S. schleiferi subsp. coagulans (13.3%). The highest level of resistance was observed to Cefoxitin (95.0%) and the lowest to Tigecycline (1.7%). S. epidermidis isolates were observed to show ≥60% resistance to all tested antibiotics with the exception of Tigecycline (0%) and Gentamicin (20%). Analysis of the multiple antibiotic resistance index (MARI) showed that majority (96.7%) of the isolates were resistant to 3 or more of the antimicrobial agents. No isolate was resistant to all the tested antimicrobial agents. A very high proportion of the CoNS isolates were resistant to cefoxitin, penicillin, tetracycline, amoxicillin-clavulanate, and vancomycin. In conclusion, the high proportion of isolates with MARI of 0.3 and above indicates a high level of antibiotic use or exposure in the study area. These findings revealed the need for continued surveillance for resistant phenotype to inform clinical therapy decisions

Carbapenemases are diverse group of Beta lactamases produce by Gram negative rods. These groups of enzymes are indicated in resistance to Beta lactam antibiotics that used to be drug of last resort in the control of infectious diseases. Incidence of Gram negative organisms producing these groups of enzymes may be a threat to management of infectious diseases in a developing country like Nigeria. In this study, incidence of Carbanemase production among antibiotic resistant Klebsiella species isolated from clinical samples of four hospitals in Zaria, Kaduna state, Nigeria, were analyzed. Conventionally identified Klebsiella isolates from the Hospitals were collected and characterized by standard microbiological methods to different species. Antibiotics susceptibility testing using Kirby Bauer agar diffusion method was conducted on the isolates. Isolates found resistant to Meropenem and/or Imipenem were tested for carbapenemase production using modified Hodges test (MHT). A total of 164 clinical isolates of suspected Klebsiella species were collected from the four hospitals under the study. The isolates generally came from urine (35.4%), sputum (26.2%), ear swab (17.1%), wound swab (13.4%) and vaginal swab (7.9%). Based on morphological and biochemical characterization, 130 of the isolates were identified as Klebsiella species. Further characterization and identification using Microgen identification kit, confirmed Klebsiella oxytoca (14.0%), Klebsiella pneumoniae (12.8%), Klebsiella ozaenae (1.2%), while 72% were other members of enterobacteriaceae. Antibiotic susceptibility testing of Klebsiella confirmed isolates showed resistance to Ceftriaxone (89.1%), Cefixime (82.6%), Amoxicillin/clavulanic acid (50%), Meropenem (37.0%), Cefoxitin (34.8%), Gentamicin (24.1%), Ofloxacin (23.9%) and Imipenem (10.9%).Out of 17(37.0%) isolates resistant to Meropenem, 14 (30.4%) were Klebsiella pneumoniae, while 2(4.3%) were Klebsiella oxytoca. Eleven (11) (23.9%) Klebsiella pneumoniae produced Carbapenemases. The findings showed that there is incidence of Carbapenemase production among Klebsiellai solates from some hospitals in Zaria, Nigeria.

Background The consumption of fresh vegetables and salads has become popular, and because of a greater understanding of health benefits, these are most often eaten raw or with minimal processing. Main body of the abstract The microbiological safety of these vegetables is necessary and the possible source of contamination includes microbial contamination of raw produce, workers hygiene and the condition of the environment and equipment used to process the salad and fresh vegetable for distribution. This article reviewed the previously published literature on the microbiological quality of fresh vegetable and salad. There was 100% isolation of bacteria in all of the studies review which include Escherichia coli, Aspergillus spp., Staphyloccocus aureus, Salmonella, Klebsiella spp., Actinomycetes, Bacillus subtilis, Pseudomonas aeroginosa, Staphyloccocus epidermidis, Bacillus spp., Shigella spp., Lactobacillus and Streptoccocus spp. Short conclusion The review study recommended that fresh vegetables and salad should be properly washed with clean water before preparing.