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The mesoscopic inhomogeneity of conducting polymer films obtained by electropolymerization and spin-coating was studied using Kelvin probe force microscopy (KFM) and current-sensing atomic-force microscopy (CS-AFM). A well-pronounced correlation was established between the polymer morphology, on the one hand, and its local work function (which is related to the polymer oxidation degree) as well as polymer conductivity, on the other. The most conducting regions were associated with the tops of the polymer grains and showed Ohmic behavior. They were surrounded first by semiconducting and then by insulating polymer. The conductivity of the grain periphery could be lower by as much as 2 orders of magnitude. The grain cores also showed consistently higher values of the local work function as compared to the grain periphery. This fact suggested that the grain cores were more oxidized and/or more ordered as compared to the grain periphery, which is in good agreement with the local conductivity data. More uniform morphology corresponded to less variability in the other properties of the polymer. A model is proposed that relates the observed inhomogeneity to preferential deposition of polymer molecules with higher molecular weight at the early stages of the polymer phase formation. The polymer deposition in either electropolymerization or various solution-casting techniques involves the nucleation of a new phase from a solution containing polymer fractions of different molecular weights. The driving force of the nucleation process depends on the solubility of the polymer fractions, which decreases with an increase in the molecular weight. This gives rise to preferential deposition of more crystalline, higher molecular weight polymer at the early stages of the polymer deposition to form the cores of the polymer grains. The fractions with lower molecular weights are deposited later and form less ordered/less conducting grain periphery. On the basis of this model, we conclude that, to ensure the formation of materials with low inhomogeneity and high quality, one should use the starting polymer with as narrow molecular weight distribution as possible. Yet another possibility is to use solvents which would reduce the differences in the solubilities of polymer fractions with different molecular weight.

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Meeting the reproductive health needs of women in post-conflict settings is a global health priority. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, social norms perpetuate gender-based violence and contribute to low contraceptive use and high fertility. The Masculinité, Famille, et Foi (MFF) intervention is working with communities in Kinshasa to create normative environments supportive of modern contraception access and use. Our analysis uses survey data collected from 900 men and women in 17 community groups prior to the MFF intervention. We aimed to measure the extent to which social norms influence intentions to use modern contraception. Using multiple items to assess social norms and reference groups related to family planning and gender equity, we identified four distinct social norms constructs through factor analysis. Through structural equation modeling, we found that social norms influence intentions to use modern contraception overall, but that normative influence varies by gender.

BackgroundAn estimated 214 million women have unmet need for family planning in developing regions. Improved utilization of the private sector is key to achieving universal access to a range of safe and effective modern contraceptive methods stipulated by FP2020 and SDG commitments. Until now, a lack of market data has limited understanding of the private sector’s role in increasing contraceptive coverage and choice.MethodsIn 2015, the FPwatch Project conducted representative outlet surveys in Ethiopia, Nigeria, and DRC using a full census approach in selected administrative areas. Every public and private sector outlet with the potential to sell or distribute modern contraceptives was approached. In outlets with modern contraceptives, product audits and provider interviews assessed contraceptive market composition, availability, and price.FindingsExcluding general retailers, 96% of potential outlets in Ethiopia, 55% in Nigeria, and 41% in DRC had modern contraceptive methods available. In Ethiopia, 41% of modern contraceptive stocking outlets were in the private sector compared with approximately 80% in Nigeria and DRC where drug shops were dominant. Ninety-five percent of private sector outlets in Ethiopia had modern contraceptive methods available; 37% had three or more methods. In Nigeria and DRC, only 54% and 42% of private sector outlets stocked modern contraceptives with 5% and 4% stocking three or more methods, respectively. High prices in Nigeria and DRC create barriers to consumer access and choice.DiscussionThere is a missed opportunity to provide modern contraception through the private sector, particularly drug shops. Subsidies and interventions, like social marketing and social franchising, could leverage the private sector’s role in increasing access to a range of contraceptives. Achieving global FP2020 commitments depends on the expansion of national contraceptive policies that promote greater partnership and cooperation with the private sector and improvement of decisions around funding streams of countries with large populations and high unmet need like Ethiopia, Nigeria, and DRC.

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As of December 2006, the American Meteorological Society/U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) Regulatory Model with Plume Rise Model Enhancements (AERMOD-PRIME; hereafter AERMOD) replaced the Industrial Source Complex Short Term Version 3 (ISCST3) as the EPA-preferred regulatory model. The change from ISCST3 to AERMOD will affect Prevention of Significant Deterioration (PSD) increment consumption as well as permit compliance in states where regulatory agencies limit property line concentrations using modeling analysis. Because of differences in model formulation and the treatment of terrain features, one cannot predict a priori whether ISCST3 or AERMOD will predict higher or lower pollutant concentrations downwind of a source. The objectives of this paper were to determine the sensitivity of AERMOD to various inputs and compare the highest downwind concentrations from a ground-level area source (GLAS) predicted by AERMOD to those predicted by ISCST3. Concentrations predicted using ISCST3 were sensitive to changes in wind speed, temperature, solar radiation (as it affects stability class), and mixing heights below 160 m. Surface roughness also affected downwind concentrations predicted by ISCST3. AERMOD was sensitive to changes in albedo, surface roughness, wind speed, temperature, and cloud cover. Bowen ratio did not affect the results from AERMOD. These results demonstrate AERMOD's sensitivity to small changes in wind speed and surface roughness. When AERMOD is used to determine property line concentrations, small changes in these variables may affect the distance within which concentration limits are exceeded by several hundred meters.