A food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and carotenoid database with information on a-and bcarotene, lutein, lycopene and b-cryptoxanthin was prepared and used to compare the carotenoid intakes in five European countries: UK, Republic of Ireland, Spain, France and The Netherlands. Eighty, age-(25±45 years) and sex-matched volunteers were recruited in each of the five countries. A FFQ and carotenoid database was prepared of the most commonly consumed carotenoid rich foods in the participating countries and the information was used to calculate frequency and intake of carotenoid-rich foods. The median total carotenoid intake based on the sum of the five carotenoids, was significantly higher P , 0´05 in France (16´1 mg/day) and lower in Spain (9´5 mg/day,) than the other countries, where the average intake was approximately 14 mg/day. Comparison of dietary source of carotenoids showed that carrots were the major source of b-carotene in all countries except Spain where spinach was most important. Likewise, carrots were also the main source of a-carotene. Tomato or tomato products, were the major source of lycopene. Lutein was mainly obtained from peas in Republic of Ireland and the UK, however, spinach was found to be the major source in other countries. In all countries, bcryptoxanthin was primarily obtained from citrus fruit. Comparing the data with that from specific European country studies suggests that the FFQ and carotenoid database described in the present paper can be used for comparative dietary intake studies within Europe. The results show that within Europe there are differences in the specific intake of some carotenoids which are related to different foods consumed by people in different countries.Carotenoids: Food frequency questionnaire: Diet

Objective: To determine dietary carotenoid concentrations using an established and newly developed food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) method, to determine plasma carotenoid concentrations and to determine the relationship between these dietary and plasma variables in 24 ± 45 y and 65 y groups. Design: Descriptive assessment of (FFQ), 7 ± d estimated records, and plasma carotenoids and their relationships in 24 ± 45 y and 65 y groups. Setting: Free living urban adults in Ireland. Subjects: Sixty-four volunteers aged 24 ± 45 y and 54 volunteers aged 65 y. Results: b-carotene was the predominant plasma carotenoid, but older groups had lower plasma concentrations of several carotenoids compared to younger groups (P`0.005). b-carotene and lycopene were the major dietary carotenoids reported by estimated records and FFQ. Several estimated record and plasma carotenoid concentrations were positively associated in younger groups but not in older groups. FFQ overestimated dietary carotenoids relative to estimated records (P 0.05), generally did not re¯ect estimated record carotenoid concentrations and showed positive associations with plasma carotenoids only in older men. Neither of the dietary methods revealed a positive association between plasma and dietary b-carotene concentrations, whereas b-cryptoxanthin was strongly associated. Conclusions: Dietary and plasma concentrations of individual carotenoids are documented in young and elderly groups of a European country. Estimated record data reveals positive associations between diet and plasma carotenoids in younger, but not elderly groups. Further work examining diet-plasma relationship in older groups and developing a common FFQ suitable for use in several European countries is required. Sponsorship: Commission of the European Communities: AAIR Project (AIR2-CT93-0888).

The results of this study suggest that, in unsupplemented individuals, plasma can act as a biomarker of carotenoid and gamma-tocopherol concentrations in both LDL and HDL. Supplementation with carotenes or lycopene do not reduce or delay oxidation of LDL. These results support the assumption that carotenoids, such as beta-carotene and lycopene, may show protective effects because they are good markers of fruit and vegetable intake.

Objective: To assess the effects of supplementation with the carotenoids, b-carotene or lycopene, at levels achievable within a diet rich in fruit and vegetables, on immune function in a group of free-living healthy elderly. Design: A double-blind randomized placebo-controlled trial. T cell subsets and the expression of functionally associated cell surface molecules, quanti®ed by¯ow cytometry, and lectin-stimulated lymphocyte proliferation, were compared before and following the treatment period. Subjects: Fifty-eight subjects aged over 65 y were recruited; 52 were included in the ®nal analysis. Interventions: Participants received one placebo, one lycopene (13.3 mg) or one b-carotene (8.2 mg) capsule daily for 12 weeks. Results: No signi®cant differences were observed in any of the parameters examined following either lycopene or b-carotene supplementation. Conclusions: In well-nourished, free-living, healthy elderly individuals, supplementation with relatively low levels of b-carotene or lycopene is not associated with either a bene®cial or detrimental effects on several aspects of cell-mediated immunity. Sponsorship: Financial support was provided by the Commission of the European Communities, speci®c programme AIR2 CT93-0888 DGXII SSMA,`Increased fruit and vegetable consumption within the EC: potential health bene®ts', co-ordinated by Professor S Southon, Institute of Food Research, Norwich, UK.