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In the present study, a novel solid acid catalyst based on titanium dioxide (2.5–10 wt %) supported on natural phosphate (TiO2/NP) was prepared by a sol–gel process, and 10 wt % loaded catalyst was characterized by several physicochemical techniques. The performances of the synthesized catalyst were investigated in esterification of oleic acid with methanol. The catalytic performance was screened under different reaction conditions, namely, loading amount of TiO2, calcination temperature, molar ratio of methanol to oleic acid, reaction temperature, and amount of catalyst. Under optimal conditions, the catalyst loaded with 10 wt % TiO2 and calcined at 800 °C showed the highest oleic acid conversion of 87%. The catalyst showed a good stability under high reaction temperature and can be reused without severe loss of activity. As a versatile application, the TiO2(10)/NP catalyst exhibits a good ability for the esterification of free fatty acids in a highly acidic feedstock.

Cement is a ubiquitous material that may suffer hazardous weathering. The chemical weathering of cement in natural environment is mostly characterized by the leaching of CaO and the addition of CO 2 . The different weathering zones that develop at the expense of the cement may be predicted by the help of chemical potential phase diagrams; these diagrams simulate the behaviour of systems open to some chemical elements. Some components have a so-called inert status, that is to say the system is closed for these components, their amount in the system remains constant; some other components have a mobile status, that is to say these components can be exchanged with the outside of the system, their amount can vary from one sample zone to another. The mobile components are represented in the model by their chemical potentials (linked to their concentrations) that are variable in the external environment. The main features of the weathering of a cement system open to CaO and CO 2 are predicted in a phase diagram with µCaO et µCO 2 as diagram axes. From core to rim, one observes the disappearance of portlandite, ettringite and calcium monosulfoaluminate, the precipitation of calcite and amorphous silica, the modification of the composition of the CSH minerals (hydrated calcium silicates) that see a decrease of their c/s ratio (CaO/SiO 2 ) from the core to the rim of the sample. For the CSH minerals, we have separated their continuous solid solution into three compositions defined by different CaO/SiO 2 ratios and called phases 1, 2 and 3: CaO = 0.8, 1.1, 1.8 respectively for one mole of SiO 2 knowing that H 2 O varies in the three compositions.

International audienceWe studied the weathering process of a very high strength concrete (VHSC) and compared it with that of a usual concrete. VHSC has compressive strengths much above 100 MPa after seven days of curing. The compressive strength is increased by lowering the value of the water/cement ratio and by improving the particle size distribution of the numerous residual anhydrous grains of clinker and of the quartz aggregates. A proportion of 15% of the cement is replaced by non-condensed silica fume, which consists of spherical particles of amorphous silica, 0.1 µm in diameter. This has the advantage to fill the space between clinker particles. Another advantage is to densify the interfacial zone between cement paste and aggregates. Afters 28 days of curing, the VHSC samples consist of quartz aggregates and residual anhydrous clinker particles linked to each other with a paste mainly composed of calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). Samples of VHSC were immersed in continuously renewed distilled water under inert atmosphere. After two months of exposure, chemical, mineralogical and textural changes have occurred in a superficial zone. The depth of the degraded zone is 300 µm. This value is much lower than the depth of the degraded zone formed in an usual mortar (800 µm) or in a common paste (1500 µm) leached in the same condition. At the surface of the weathered samples of VHSC, the anhydrous clinker particles have dissolved and the resulting holes of 10 µm diameter remained empty. At the frontier between the safe core and the weathered superficial zone, the holes resulting from the dissolution of clinker particles were filled with secondary C-S-H. As a conclusion, the low porosity of VHSC is a benefit for the compressive strength but also for the durability. The presence of numerous anhydrous clinker particles is not a problem