Urolithiasis is a global pathology with increasing prevalence rate. The lifetime recurrence of urolithiasis ranges from 10–75% creating a public health crisis in affected regions. The epidemiology of urolithiasis in most parts of Africa and Asia remains poorly documented as incidence and prevalence rates in these settings are extrapolated from hospital admissions. The surgical management of kidney and ureteral stones is based on the stone location, size, the patient’s preference and the institutional capacity. To date, the available modalities in the management of urolithiasis includes external shock wave lithotripsy (ESWL), percutaneous nephrolithotomy (PCNL), ureterorenoscopy (URS) including flexible and semirigid ureteroscopy. However, regarding the lack of endourological equipment and expertise in most parts of Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA), most urological centers in these regions still consider open surgery for kidney and ureteral stones. This review explores the current trend and surgical management of upper tract urolithiasis in SSA with insight on the available clinical guidelines.

Prostate cancer is the second most common malignancy in males and the sixth leading cause of cancer mortality in men with a relatively higher death rate in men of African descent. In the United States and other parts of Europe, more than 80% of diagnosed prostate cancer is localized, and 80-90% of these men receive some form of treatment. The projected data may not be a direct reflection of the disease in the sub-Saharan region as less than 40% presents with localized disease. Results from prostate cancer screening have shown that most African men in the sub-region have little knowledge of the disease. There are recommended international guidelines for the management of localized prostate cancer, however, a guideline in a local context could be ideal.

Bladder cancer is the fourth most common cancer in men and the 11th most common cancer in woman accounting for 6.6% of all cancer cases. Approximately 70-75% bladder cancers are non-muscle invasive bladder cancer (NMIBC). A few African studies have provided considerable rates of NMIBC as compared to western settings 70% to 85%. Critical step in the management of NMIBC is to prevent tumor recurrence which include transurethral resection of the bladder tumor (TURBT) for staging and histological diagnosis. A second TURBT for high grade tumor, T1 tumors and intravesical adjuvant chemotherapy and immunotherapy are essential to reduce recurrence rate. Nevertheless, variant histology, multiple, progressive and recurrent high-grade tumors are best treated with early radical cystectomy. The African literature is scanty on the management of NMIBC. Most of the histological types are squamous cell bladder cancer and may not conform to transurethral resection only but rather radical cystectomy. Most of these patients are not suitable for any form of treatment as they present with advanced disease. However, there is an increasing incidence of urothelial cancer in Africa over the years due to urbanization. It is best that major investment is made in uro-oncological care to address the growing challenge of these subtypes.

Testicular cancer is a common malignancy in young males with higher incidence in developed nations but with the lowest incidence in Africa (0.3-0.6/100 000). Ironically, the global testicular cancer mortality rate has shown a reverse trend to its incidence with higher rates in low-and middle-income countries (0.5 per 100 000) than in high-income countries. Data from GLOBOCAN 2008 have shown relatively high mortality rates in sub-Saharan countries like Mali, Ethiopia, Niger and Malawi. The prognosis of testicular tumor is good with remarkable chemosensitivity to cisplatin-based regimen. Early diagnosis, careful staging and a multidisciplinary management approach is crucial to achieve this optimal result. These results are achievable in the sub-Saharan region if the relevant resources are appropriated for cancer care and clinical guidelines are formulated in a regional context.

Background Penile cancer is a rare malignancy with prevalence higher in areas of high Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) such as Africa, Asia and South America. In middle- and low-income countries where circumcision is not routinely practiced, the rate of penile cancer could be ten times higher. Main body of the abstract A literature review was conducted from 1992 to 2019 using PubMed, Google Scholar, African Journal Online and Google with inclusion of 27 publications with emphasis on the Sub-Saharan literature. Findings revealed that most men with penile cancer in Sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) present with locally advanced to advanced disease with devastating consequences. The option of penile sparing procedure is reduced with most treatment option directed to mutilating surgeries. The lack of appropriate chemotherapy and radiotherapy worsens the prognosis in the region. Short conclusion Human Papilloma Virus (HPV) vaccination may not be cost-effective for most regions in SSA. Therefore, early childhood circumcision might be the best advocated alternative for prevention.

The estimated incidence rate of prostate cancer in Africa was 22.0/100,000 in 2016. The International Agency for Research on Cancer (IARC) has cited prostate cancer as a growing health threat in Africa with approximated 28,006 deaths in 2010 and estimated 57,048 deaths in 2030. The exact incidence of advanced and metastatic prostate cancer is not known in sub-Saharan Africa. Hospital-based reports from the region have shown a rising trend with most patients presenting with advanced or metastatic disease. The management of advanced and metastatic prostate cancer is challenging. The available international guidelines may not be cost-effective for an African population. The most efficient approach in the region has been surgical castration by bilateral orchidectomy or pulpectomy. Medical androgen deprivation therapy is expensive and may not be available. Patients with metastatic castrate-resistant prostate cancer tend to be palliated due to the absence or cost of chemotherapy or second-line androgen deprivation therapy in most of Africa. A cost-effective guideline for developing nations to address the rising burden of advanced prostate cancer is warranted at this moment.

Priapism is a rare urological emergency. It is rarely a telltale sign of myeloid leukemia. We report two cases of acute myeloid leukemia in a child and chronic myeloid leukemia in a young adult presenting with priapism. Puncture irrigation of the corpora cavernosa followed by systemic treatment to lower the hyperviscosity of the blood due to leukemia provided optimal outcome. Prompt emergency management is required to lower the complication of erectile dysfunction.

There is a global variation in the incidence of renal masses with the developed nations having a greater incidence. About 80–90% of renal malignancies are renal cell carcinomas (RCC) which account for 2–4% of all cancers. In Africa and the Middle East, the age-standardized incidence for RCC is 1.8–4.8/100,000 for males and 1.2–2.2/100,000 for females. The management of renal cell cancer is challenging. A multidisciplinary approach is effective for diagnosis, staging, and treatment. Guidelines recommend active surveillance, thermal ablation, partial nephrectomy, radical nephrectomy, cytoreductive nephrectomy and immunotherapy as various modalities for various stages of RCC. However, open radical nephrectomy is most widely adopted as an option for treatment at various stages of the disease in sub-Saharan Africa due to its cost-effectiveness, applicability at various stages, and the reduced cost of follow-up. Nevertheless, most patients in the region present with the disease in the advanced stage and despite surgery the prognosis is poor.