This paper describes the behavior of large and giant unilamellar vesicles (LUVs and GUVs, respectively) in the presence of chitosan, a positively charged polyelectrolyte. Variation of the zeta-potential of LUVs as a function of chitosan concentration is studied for two different molecular weights (MW) after a preliminary study devoted to pH and salt effects on zeta-potential in order to discriminate among the effects of protons, salt, and chitosan concentrations. The difference observed between pH and salt effects on the one hand and chitosan on the other allows us to conclude there is a strong LUV-chitosan interaction. In presence of chitosan, the zeta-potential of LUVs becomes positive and two distinct regimes of variation are suggested and interpreted as follows: a first step consists of chitosan adsorption flat on the membrane (independent of MW) followed by a possible reorganization of the polymer of higher molecular weight on the surface, giving rise to loops. Then a comparative observation of the effect of pH and salt by optical microscopy is made on naked and chitosan-decorated GUVs. Results further confirm a membrane-chitosan interaction and are interpreted in the light of the results obtained for LUVs in terms of both electrostatic and hydrophobic interaction. A large majority of decorated vesicles remain stable down to pH = 1 while in the absence of chitosan they burst quickly at pH between 2 and 3. Osmotic pressure and net charge change due to addition of HCl results in a decrease in the diameter of the decorated vesicles, which remain spherical while forming tubes of lipids. In presence of NaCl, a higher resistance of decorated vesicles is also evidenced (they are stable for NaCl concentrations up to 10-1 M while naked vesicles burst when [NaCl] is between 10-2 and 10-3 M). At higher salt concentration, aggregation of decorated vesicles occurs, which is attributed to the screening of electrostatic repulsions between vesicles covered by the positively charged chitosan. Finally, adhesion of vesicles on a positively charged surface is investigated. In absence of chitosan, the vesicles immediately burst when they come in contact with the surface. On the contrary, suspension of chitosan-vesicles remain stable down to pH = 1.5. Under gentle flow vesicles move: they do not adhere on the substrate, probably due to the repulsion between positively adsorbed charged chitosan and substrate; spherical deflation occurs, but in this case daughter vesicles are formed instead of lipid tubes.

Endosomes have important roles in intracellular signal transduction as a sorting platform. Signaling cascades from TLR engagement to IRF3-dependent gene transcription rely on endosomes, yet the proteins that specifically recruit IRF3-activating molecules to them are poorly defined. We show that adaptor protein containing a pleckstrin-homology domain, a phosphotyrosine-binding domain, and a leucine zipper motif (APPL)1, an early endosomal protein, is required for both TRIF- and retinoic acid–inducible gene 1–dependent signaling cascades to induce IRF3 activation. APPL1, but not early endosome Ag 1, deficiency impairs IRF3 target gene expression upon engagement of both TLR3 and TLR4 pathways, as well as in H1N1-infected macrophages. The IRF3-phosphorylating kinases TBK1 and IKKε are recruited to APPL1 endosomes in LPS-stimulated macrophages. Interestingly, APPL1 undergoes proteasome-mediated degradation through ERK1/2 to turn off signaling. APPL1 degradation is blocked when signaling through the endosome is inhibited by chloroquine or dynasore. Therefore, APPL1 endosomes are critical for IRF3-dependent gene expression in response to some viral and bacterial infections in macrophages. Those signaling pathways involve the signal-induced degradation of APPL1 to prevent aberrant IRF3-dependent gene expression linked to immune diseases.

Restoration of p53 tumor suppressor function through inhibition of its interaction and/or enzymatic activity of its E3 ligase, MDM2, is a promising therapeutic approach to treat cancer. However, because the MDM2 targetome extends beyond p53, MDM2 inhibition may also cause unwanted activation of oncogenic pathways. Accordingly, we identified the microtubuleassociated HPIP, a positive regulator of oncogenic AKT signaling, as a novel MDM2 substrate. MDM2-dependent HPIP degradation occurs in breast cancer cells on its phosphorylation by the estrogen-activated kinase TBK1. Importantly, decreasing Mdm2 gene dosage in mouse mammary epithelial cells potentiates estrogen-dependent AKT activation owing to HPIP stabilization. In addition, we identified HPIP as a novel p53 transcriptional target, and pharmacological inhibition of MDM2 causes p53-dependent increase in HPIP transcription and also prevents HPIP degradation by turning off TBK1 activity. Our data indicate that p53 reactivation through MDM2 inhibition may result in ectopic AKT oncogenic activity by maintaining HPIP protein levels. Cell Death and Differentiation (2014) 21, 811-824; doi:10.1038/cdd.2014.2; published online 31 January 2014Restoration of p53 tumor suppressor function in cancer cells expressing wild-type (WT) p53 is a promising therapeutic approach. 1 Reactivation of p53 activity can be achieved by small molecular inhibitors that disrupt the interaction between p53 and its main E3 ligase MDM2. As a result, targeted cells undergo cell cycle arrest and apoptosis through p53 stabilization. 2 A potential drawback associated with this approach is that, besides p53, MDM2 targets other substrates for degradation. 3 In this context, accumulative evidence show that MDM2 promotes the degradation of FOXO3a, a tumor-suppressing transcription factor as well as the apoptosome activator CAS and the ubiquitin E3 ligase HUWE1. 4,5 Although it is currently unclear whether MDM2 targets positive regulators of oncogenic pathways, an exhaustive characterization of MDM2 substrates will help to anticipate undesired side effects of MDM2 inhibitors used in cancer therapy.Oncogenic pathways include AKT-dependent signaling cascades. Indeed, AKT promotes cell proliferation, survival, migration and angiogenesis by targeting numerous substrates ranging from anti-apoptotic transcription factors to regulators of protein synthesis. 6,7 Mutations or altered expressions of various AKT-activating signaling molecules have been described in human malignancies, thereby defining AKT as a hallmark of tumor development and progression. 8,9 AKT activation by estrogens requires the microtubule-binding protein hematopoietic PBX-interaction protein (HPIP). 10 Initially identified as a corepressor of pre-B-cell leukemia homeobox protein 1 (PBX1), 11 HPIP assembles a signaling complex that connects the p85 subunit of PI3K and ERa to microtubules in order to properly activate AKT. 10 Likewise, HPIP also promotes the growth and differentiation of hematopoietic cells through AKT. 12 Because correct reg...