Universal positive correlations between different cognitive tests motivate the concept of “general intelligence” or Spearman's g . Here the neural basis for g is investigated by means of positron emission tomography. Spatial, verbal, and perceptuo-motor tasks with high- g involvement are compared with matched low- g control tasks. In contrast to the common view that g reflects a broad sample of major cognitive functions, high- g tasks do not show diffuse recruitment of multiple brain regions. Instead they are associated with selective recruitment of lateral frontal cortex in one or both hemispheres. Despite very different task content in the three high- g –low- g contrasts, lateral frontal recruitment is markedly similar in each case. Many previous experiments have shown these same frontal regions to be recruited by a broad range of different cognitive demands. The results suggest that “general intelligence” derives from a specific frontal system important in the control of diverse forms of behavior.

BackgroundBreast cancer is not a single entity but a diverse group of entities. Advances in gene expression profiling and immunohistochemistry as its surrogate marker have led to the unmasking of new breast cancer molecular subtypes, resulting in the emergence of more elaborate classification systems that are therapeutically and prognostically more predictive. Molecular class distribution across various ethnic groups may also reveal variations that can lead to different clinical outcomes in different populations.MethodsWe aimed to analyze the spectrum of molecular subtypes present in the Saudi population. ER, PR, HER2, EGFR and CK5/6 were used as surrogate markers for gene expression profiling to classify 231 breast cancer specimens. Correlation of each molecular class with Ki-67 proliferation index, p53 mutation status, histologic type and grade of the tumor was also carried out.ResultsOut of 231 cases 9 (3.9%) were classified as luminal A (strong ER +ve, PR +ve or -ve), 37 (16%) as luminal B (weak to moderate ER +ve, and/or PR +ve), 40 (17.3%) as HER2+ (strong or moderately positive HER 2 with confirmation by silver enhanced in-situ hybridization) and 23 (10%) as basal (CK5/6 or EGFR +ve). Co-positivity of different markers in varied patterns was seen in 23 (10%) of cases which were grouped into a hybrid category comprising luminal B-HER2, HER2-basal and luminal-basal hybrids. Ninety nine (42.8%) of the tumors were negative for all five immunohistochemical markers and were labelled as unclassified (penta negative). A high Ki-67 proliferation index was seen in basal (p = 0.007) followed by HER2+ class. Overexpression of p53 was predominantly seen in HER2 + (p = 0.001) followed by the basal group of tumors. A strong correlation was noted between invasive lobular carcinoma and hormone receptor expression with 8 out of 9 lobular carcinoma cases (88.9%) classifiable as luminal cancers. Otherwise, there was no association between the molecular class and the histologic type or grade of the tumor.ConclusionsSubtyping by use of this immunohistochemical panel revealed a prevalence pattern that is unique to our population; luminal tumors comprised only 19.9%, and the unclassified group (penta negative) 42.8%, a distribution which is distinctive to our population and in contrast with all Western studies. The presence of a predominant unclassified group also suggests that the currently used molecular analytic spectrum may not completely encompass all molecular classes and there is a need to further refine and develop the existing classification systems.

This article describes the development of a set of researchinformed resources for assessing the spoken language skills (oracy) of students aged 11-12. The Cambridge Oracy Assessment Toolkit includes assessment tasks and procedures for use by teachers, together with a unique Skills Framework for identifying the range of skills involved in using talk in any specific social situation. As we explain, no comparable, 'teacher-friendly' instrument of this kind exists. Underpinning its development is the argument that teaching children how to use their first or main language effectively across a range of social contexts should be given higher priority in educational policy and school practice, and that the development of robust, practicable ways of assessing oracy will help to achieve that goal. We explain how the Responses to editor and reviewers-June '16 We have inserted the following paragraph in Section 1.4: Most importantly, this approach does not deny that different tasks, curriculum subject areas and genres have distinctive features in terms of the development of oracy skills, and that these can be highly specialised, applying only to a single genre for example. However, the generic skills-based framework developed and used within the project (Figure 1, below) has a very specific function. It provides an over-arching framework of generic skills-categorised as physical, linguistic, cognitive and socialfrom which relevant skills can be selected for assessment as relevant to a given task. So, 'building on the views of others' might be highly pertinent in an assessment of group talk, but not necessarily in public speaking; yet 'fluency and pace of speech' might pertain to a drama performance, a presentation and so on. The important thing is the selection of skills for assessment and their association with particular tasks, enabling the teacher to build a profile over time. Thus, we would not suggest that this framework is completely comprehensive for all language use in all contexts, curriculum areas or subjects. Nor do we suggest that the whole framework of skills is relevant to every context. However, we demonstrate how several assessments, used across time and in a range of contexts, can build a generic oracy profile for a student. Further, we demonstrate that this is only really possible if teachers have an overall framework of broad oracy skills as a template for their various assessments.

In 4 experiments, infants aged 8 to 12 months were tested on A not B search tasks, and nonsearch A not B tasks following the violation-of-expectation paradigm. A 1-location task and 2 control tasks were also conducted. In the nonsearch tasks, a toy was hidden in A, moved to B, and retrieved after a delay from either A (impossible) or B (possible). Results showed significantly longer looking times at impossible events, indicating some memory for where the object was hidden and an expectation of where it should be found. This effect occurred at delays at which infants made the A not B error when searching, and at a longer delay of 15 s. The results showed clearly that infants have some memory for the object's location, even at delays at which they search at the incorrect location. Discussion centers on how these results are accounted for within explanations of the A not B error.