Sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) functions not only as a bioactive lipid molecule, but also as an important intermediate of the sole sphingolipid-to-glycerolipid metabolic pathway. However, the precise reactions and the enzymes involved in this pathway remain unresolved. We report here that yeast HFD1 and the Sjögren-Larsson syndrome (SLS)-causative mammalian gene ALDH3A2 are responsible for conversion of the S1P degradation product hexadecenal to hexadecenoic acid. The absence of ALDH3A2 in CHO-K1 mutant cells caused abnormal metabolism of S1P/hexadecenal to ether-linked glycerolipids. Moreover, we demonstrate that yeast Faa1 and Faa4 and mammalian ACSL family members are acyl-CoA synthetases involved in the sphingolipid-to-glycerolipid metabolic pathway and that hexadecenoic acid accumulates in Δfaa1 Δfaa4 mutant cells. These results unveil the entire S1P metabolic pathway: S1P is metabolized to glycerolipids via hexadecenal, hexadecenoic acid, hexadecenoyl-CoA, and palmitoyl-CoA. From our results we propose a possibility that accumulation of the S1P metabolite hexadecenal contributes to the pathogenesis of SLS.

A skin permeability barrier is essential for terrestrial animals, and its impairment causes several cutaneous disorders such as ichthyosis and atopic dermatitis. Although acylceramide is an important lipid for the skin permeability barrier, details of its production have yet to be determined, leaving the molecular mechanism of skin permeability barrier formation unclear. Here we identified the cytochrome P450 gene CYP4F22 (cytochrome P450, family 4, subfamily F, polypeptide 22) as the long-sought fatty acid ω-hydroxylase gene required for acylceramide production. CYP4F22 has been identified as one of the autosomal recessive congenital ichthyosis-causative genes. Ichthyosis-mutant proteins exhibited reduced enzyme activity, indicating correlation between activity and pathology. Furthermore, lipid analysis of a patient with ichthyosis showed a drastic decrease in acylceramide production. We determined that CYP4F22 was a type I membrane protein that locates in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), suggesting that the ω-hydroxylation occurs on the cytoplasmic side of the ER. The preferred substrate of the CYP4F22 was fatty acids with a carbon chain length of 28 or more (≥C28). In conclusion, our findings demonstrate that CYP4F22 is an ultra-long-chain fatty acid ω-hydroxylase responsible for acylceramide production and provide important insights into the molecular mechanisms of skin permeability barrier formation. Furthermore, based on the results obtained here, we proposed a detailed reaction series for acylceramide production.acylceramide | ceramide | lipid | skin | sphingolipid

2 Highlights• Eight ACSs exhibited activities toward the S1P metabolite trans-2-hecadecenoic acid.• ACS isozymes involved in S1P metabolism were localized in the ER.• Inhibition of ACSs caused accumulation of trans-2-hexadecenoic acid. 3 ABSTRACTSphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) plays important roles both as a bioactive lipid molecule and an intermediate of the sphingolipid-to-glycerophospholipid metabolic pathway. To identify human acyl-CoA synthetases (ACSs) involved in S1P metabolism, we cloned all 26 human ACS genes and examined their abilities to restore deficient sphingolipid-to-glycerophospholipid metabolism in a yeast mutant lacking two ACS genes, FAA1 and FAA4. Here, in addition to the previously identified ACSL family members (ACSL1, 3, 4, 5, and 6), we found that ACSVL1, ACSVL4, and ACSBG1 also restored metabolism. All 8 ACSs were localized either exclusively or partly to the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), where S1P metabolism takes place. We previously proposed the entire S1P metabolic pathway from results obtained using yeast cells, i.e., S1P is metabolized totrans-2-hexadecenoyl-CoA, and palmitoyl-CoA. However, as S1P is not a naturally occurring long-chain base 1-phosphate in yeast, the validity of this pathway required further verification using mammalian cells. In the present study, we treated HeLa cells with the ACS inhibitor triacsin C and found that inhibition of ACSs resulted in accumulation of trans-2-hexadecenoic acid as in ACS mutant yeast. From these results, we conclude that S1P is metabolized by a common pathway in eukaryotes.

Proper spatiotemporal gene expression is achieved by selective DNA binding of transcription factors in the genome. The most intriguing question is how dynamic interactions between transcription factors and their target sites contribute to gene regulation by recruiting the basal transcriptional machinery. Here we demonstrate individual binding and dissociation events of the transcription factor cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB), both in vitro and in living cells, using single-molecule imaging. Fluorescent–tagged CREB bound to its target sequence cAMP-response element (CRE) for a remarkably longer period (dissociation rate constant: 0.21 s-1) than to an unrelated sequence (2.74 s-1). Moreover, CREB resided at restricted positions in the living cell nucleus for a comparable period. These results suggest that CREB stimulates transcription by binding transiently to CRE in the time range of several seconds.