Protein misfolding and aggregation is increasingly being recognized as a cause of disease. In Alzheimer’s disease the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) misfolds into neurotoxic oligomers and assembles into amyloid fibrils. The Bri2 protein associated with Familial British and Danish dementias contains a BRICHOS domain, which reduces Aβ fibrillization as well as neurotoxicity in vitro and in a Drosophila model, but also rescues proteins from irreversible non-fibrillar aggregation. How these different activities are mediated is not known. Here we show that Bri2 BRICHOS monomers potently prevent neuronal network toxicity of Aβ, while dimers strongly suppress Aβ fibril formation. The dimers assemble into high-molecular-weight oligomers with an apparent two-fold symmetry, which are efficient inhibitors of non-fibrillar protein aggregation. These results indicate that Bri2 BRICHOS affects qualitatively different aspects of protein misfolding and toxicity via different quaternary structures, suggesting a means to generate molecular chaperone diversity.

Metal ions have emerged to play a key role in the aggregation process of amyloid β (Aβ) peptide that is closely related to the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease. A detailed understanding of the underlying mechanistic process of peptide-metal interactions, however, has been challenging to obtain. By applying a combination of NMR relaxation dispersion and fluorescence kinetics methods we have investigated quantitatively the thermodynamic Aβ-Zn 2+ binding features as well as how Zn 2+ modulates the nucleation mechanism of the aggregation process. Our results show that, under near-physiological conditions, substoichiometric amounts of Zn 2+ effectively retard the generation of amyloid fibrils. A global kinetic profile analysis reveals that in the absence of zinc Aβ 40 aggregation is driven by a monomer-dependent secondary nucleation process in addition to fibril-end elongation. In the presence of Zn 2+ , the elongation rate is reduced, resulting in reduction of the aggregation rate, but not a complete inhibition of amyloid formation. We show that Zn 2+ transiently binds to residues in the N terminus of the monomeric peptide. A thermodynamic analysis supports a model where the N terminus is folded around the Zn 2+ ion, forming a marginally stable, short-lived folded Aβ 40 species. This conformation is highly dynamic and only a few percent of the peptide molecules adopt this structure at any given time point. Our findings suggest that the folded Aβ 40 -Zn 2+ complex modulates the fibril ends, where elongation takes place, which efficiently retards fibril formation. In this conceptual framework we propose that zinc adopts the role of a minimal antiaggregation chaperone for Aβ 40 .Alzheimer's disease | amyloid beta peptide | aggregation kinetics | zinc ion interactions | NMR relaxation

The amyloid β (Aβ) peptides are 39-42 residue-long peptides found in the senile plaques in the brains of Alzheimer's disease (AD) patients. These peptides self-aggregate in aqueous solution, going from soluble and mainly unstructured monomers to insoluble ordered fibrils. The aggregation process(es) are strongly influenced by environmental conditions. Several lines of evidence indicate that the neurotoxic species are the intermediate oligomeric states appearing along the aggregation pathways. This minireview summarizes recent findings, mainly based on solution and solid-state NMR experiments and electron microscopy, which investigate the molecular structures and characteristics of the Aβ peptides at different stages along the aggregation pathways. We conclude that a hairpin-like conformation constitutes a common motif for the Aβ peptides in most of the described structures. There are certain variations in different hairpin conformations, for example regarding H-bonding partners, which could be one reason for the molecular heterogeneity observed in the aggregated systems. Interacting hairpins are the building blocks of the insoluble fibrils, again with variations in how hairpins are organized in the cross-section of the fibril, perpendicular to the fibril axis. The secondary structure propensities can be seen already in peptide monomers in solution. Unfortunately, detailed structural information about the intermediate oligomeric states is presently not available. In the review, special attention is given to metal ion interactions, particularly the binding constants and ligand structures of Aβ complexes with Cu(II) and Zn(II), since these ions affect the aggregation process(es) and are considered to be involved in the molecular mechanisms underlying AD pathology.

Molecular chaperones play important roles in preventing protein misfolding and its potentially harmful consequences. Deterioration of molecular chaperone systems upon ageing are thought to underlie age-related neurodegenerative diseases, and augmenting their activities could have therapeutic potential. The dementia relevant domain BRICHOS from the Bri2 protein shows qualitatively different chaperone activities depending on quaternary structure, and assembly of monomers into high-molecular weight oligomers reduces the ability to prevent neurotoxicity induced by the Alzheimer-associated amyloid-β peptide 1-42 (Aβ42). Here we design a Bri2 BRICHOS mutant (R221E) that forms stable monomers and selectively blocks a main source of toxic species during Aβ42 aggregation. Wild type Bri2 BRICHOS oligomers are partly disassembled into monomers in the presence of the R221E mutant, which leads to potentiated ability to prevent Aβ42 toxicity to neuronal network activity. These results suggest that the activity of endogenous molecular chaperones may be modulated to enhance anti-Aβ42 neurotoxic effects.

Alzheimer's disease is the most common of the protein misfolding ("amyloid") diseases. The deposits in the brains of afflicted patients contain as a major fraction an aggregated insoluble form of the so-called amyloid β-peptides (Aβ peptides): fragments of the amyloid precursor protein of 39-43 residues in length. This review focuses on biophysical studies of the Aβ peptides: that is, of the aggregation pathways and intermediates observed during aggregation, of the molecular structures observed along these pathways, and of the interactions of Aβ with Cu and Zn ions and with small molecules that modify the aggregation pathways. Particular emphasis is placed on studies based on high-resolution and solid-state NMR methods. Theoretical studies relating to the interactions are also included. An emerging picture is that of Aβ peptides in aqueous solution undergoing hydrophobic collapse together with identical partners. There then follows a relatively slow process leading to more ordered secondary and tertiary (quaternary) structures in the growing aggregates. These aggregates eventually assemble into elongated fibrils visible by electron microscopy. Small molecules or metal ions that interfere with the aggregation processes give rise to a variety of aggregation products that may be studied in vitro and considered in relation to observations in cell cultures or in vivo. Although the heterogeneous nature of the processes makes detailed structural studies difficult, knowledge and understanding of the underlying physical chemistry might provide a basis for future therapeutic strategies against the disease. A final part of the review deals with the interactions that may occur between the Aβ peptides and the prion protein, where the latter is involved in other protein misfolding diseases.

Protein misfolding and formation of cross-β structured amyloid fibrils are linked to many neurodegenerative disorders. Although recently developed quantitative approaches have started to reveal the molecular nature of self-assembly and fibril formation of proteins and peptides, it is yet unclear how these self-organization events are precisely modulated by microenvironmental factors, which are known to strongly affect the macroscopic aggregation properties. Here, we characterize the explicit effect of ionic strength on the microscopic aggregation rates of amyloid β peptide (Aβ40) self-association, implicated in Alzheimer's disease. We found that physiological ionic strength accelerates Aβ40 aggregation kinetics by promoting surface-catalyzed secondary nucleation reactions. This promoted catalytic effect can be assigned to shielding of electrostatic repulsion between monomers on the fibril surface or between the fibril surface itself and monomeric peptides. Furthermore, we observe the formation of two different β-structured states with similar but distinct spectroscopic features, which can be assigned to an off-pathway immature state (Fβ*) and a mature stable state (Fβ), where salt favors formation of the Fβ fibril morphology. Addition of salt to preformed Fβ* accelerates transition to Fβ, underlining the dynamic nature of Aβ40 fibrils in solution. On the basis of these results we suggest a model where salt decreases the free-energy barrier for Aβ40 folding to the Fβ state, favoring the buildup of the mature fibril morphology while omitting competing, energetically less favorable structural states.

Formation of fibrils of the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) is suggested to play a central role in neurodegeneration in Alzheimer's disease (AD), for which no effective treatment exists. The BRICHOS domain is a part of several disease-related proproteins, the most studied ones being Bri2 associated with familial dementia and prosurfactant protein C (proSP-C) associated with lung amyloid. BRICHOS from proSP-C has been found to be an efficient inhibitor of Aβ aggregation and toxicity, but its lung-specific expression makes it unsuited to target in AD. Bri2 is expressed in the brain, affects processing of Aβ precursor protein, and increased levels of Bri2 are found in AD brain, but the specific role of its BRICHOS domain has not been studied in vivo Here, we find that transgenic expression of the Bri2 BRICHOS domain in the Drosophila central nervous system (CNS) or eyes efficiently inhibits Aβ42 toxicity. In the presence of Bri2 BRICHOS, Aβ42 is diffusely distributed throughout the mushroom bodies, a brain region involved in learning and memory, whereas Aβ42 expressed alone or together with proSP-C BRICHOS forms punctuate deposits outside the mushroom bodies. Recombinant Bri2 BRICHOS domain efficiently prevents Aβ42-induced reduction in γ-oscillations in hippocampal slices. Finally, Bri2 BRICHOS inhibits several steps in the Aβ42 fibrillation pathway and prevents aggregation of heat-denatured proteins, indicating that it is a more versatile chaperone than proSP-C BRICHOS. These findings suggest that Bri2 BRICHOS can be a physiologically relevant chaperone for Aβ in the CNS and needs to be further investigated for its potential in AD treatment.

During storage in the silk gland, the n-terminal domain (nt) of spider silk proteins (spidroins) keeps the aggregation-prone repetitive region in solution at extreme concentrations. We observe that nts from different spidroins have co-evolved with their respective repeat region, and now use an NT that is distantly related to previously used NTs, for efficient recombinant production of the amyloid-β peptide (Aβ) implicated in Alzheimer's disease. A designed variant of nt from Nephila clavipes flagelliform spidroin, which in nature allows production and storage of β-hairpin repeat segments, gives exceptionally high yields of different human Aβ variants as a solubility tag. This tool enables efficient production of target peptides also in minimal medium and gives up to 10 times more isotope-labeled monomeric Aβ peptides per liter bacterial culture than previously reported.Orb-weaving spiders manufacture up to seven different silks, e.g. dragline silk derived from major ampullate silk proteins (spidroins, MaSp) and flagelliform silk derived from flagelliform spidroins (FlSp). The various spidroins share a common architecture -a large core repetitive region capped by globular N-and C-terminal domains (NT and CT) 1 . The divergent and large aggregation-prone repetitive regions of the spidroins determine the mechanical properties of the respective spider silks, while the terminal domains regulate silk fiber formation 2,3 . Despite their high aggregation propensity the spidroins can be stored at extremely high concentrations (30-50% w/v) in the spider silk gland, solubilized by the NT domain 1,4 .The NT dimerizes upon a drop in pH, which is crucial for silk fiber formation 1,5 . To ensure solubility also at low pH and widen the applicability of NT as a solubility enhancing fusion partner, a charged-reversed mutant has been designed (referred to as NT* MaSp ) 6 . The previously reported NT* MaSp tag is derived from the NT domain of Euprosthenops australis MaSp1 and folds as a five-helix bundle 6,7 . NT* MaSp is a pH insensitive constitutive monomer, highly stable and extremely soluble, and has been successfully applied for efficient production and purification of, among others, lung surfactant protein analogs, cholecystokinin-58, human antimicrobial cathelicidin and a designed β-sheet protein 6,8 .Aggregation-prone proteins and peptides are associated with several neurodegenerative disorders, e.g. Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most prevalent form of dementia 9,10 . These proteins/peptides often exhibit high β-sheet propensity, which make them prone to aggregate and form insoluble amyloid fibrils 11 . These intrinsic properties of amyloid-forming proteins make high-yield biochemical production challenging, yet the availability of pure protein samples is crucial for studying protein self-assembly and its associated neurotoxicity in vitro and in vivo. This is probably one important reason behind the fact that, despite immense efforts, the exact mechanisms of Aβ self-assembly are still unknown 9-11 . Recent advances have howe...