65sleep and sleep site selection, a comparative approach is required (Elgar, Pagel and Harvey, 1988; 66 Lesku, Roth II, Amlaner and Lima, 2006;Rattenborg, Martinez-Gonzalez and Lesku, 2009). Sleep can 67 comprise more than 50% of a primate's activity budget (Campbell and Tobler, 1984 79that are self-constructed or constructed by other species. Use of nests (either self-constructed or made in 80 tree holes or hollows) and platforms as sleep sites is common among strepsirhines and great apes, and, 81 presumably, the earliest humans (Sabater, Veá and Serrallonga, 1997;Bearder et al., 2003; Fultz, Brent, 82 Breaux and Grand, 2013;Samson and Shumaker, 2015b), but are rarely used by other haplorhines. 83Samson and Nunn (2015) distinguished these assembled nests, on the basis that for larger primates, tree 84 hollows would not be a viable sleeping option, and suggest that ancestral Paleocene and Eocene 85primates probably had galago-like fixed point nest use. Since most monkeys do not use nests, nest use 86 must have evolved multiple times. To be able to infer potential sleep site patterns in early primates (i.e. 87the ones for which only morphological data are available), we also must examine how body size, forelimb 88 to hindlimb ratio, and hand dexterity combine to assist living primates in their sleep site choices (Covert, 89 2002; Gebo and Dagosto, 2004). 4To examine the question further, Kappeler (1998) Rasmussen (1986) and Ehrlich and MacBride, (1989)]. 98Regarding the paucity of field data on many primate taxa, he urged further research of wild primates to 99 understand better the evolution of sleep site selection. 105In the twenty-first century, substantial taxonomic changes have occurred for both the African and Asian 106 lorisiforms. First, the dwarf galagos of the genus Galagoides were recognized as a polyphyletic clade 107 (Pozzi et al., 2015), and now are comprised of Galagoides (western and central Africa) and Paragalago 108(eastern Africa). Paragalago is a sister taxon to the genus Galago, and Galagoides and is a sister taxon 109 to the clade containing Sciurocheirus, Otolemur, Paragalago and Galago (Masters et al., 2017 132These data can be used as a basis to understanding ancestral sleep behavior of primates that can help to 133 inform sleep patterns that occurred later in primate evolution. 135 MATERIAL AND METHODS 136We follow the taxonomy of Nekaris 174To gain insight into sleep patterns and the presence of fragmented sleep in the lorisiforms, we compiled 175 data on when individuals entered and exited sleep sites. From selected sites, we added information on 176 pre-or post-dusk waking and pre-or post-dawn sleeping. We added observations of sleep during the 177 night or non-sleep behavior during the day. 178We examined evidence of predation on lorisiforms and highlight those instances where the events 179 occurred while the animal was asleep, or where we could reasonably infer that predation had taken place 180 during the daytime. We excluded predation events by nocturnal p...
Comparative behavioural research reveals both intra-and inter-species diversity among primates. Few long-term behavioural studies have been conducted on African nocturnal primates. Here we describe and compare behavioural and ecological observations on two species of pottos (Perodicticus ibeanus and P. edwardsi) across ten sites. We observed a total of 51 P. edwardsi and 28 P. ibeanus. We recorded all 21 postures within an established lorisid ethogram, as well as 42 of 50 behaviours. Eating, locomotion, freezing, resting and sniffing were the most common behaviours. We recorded behaviours not previously described for perodicticines, including bark chewing and unique vocalisations. Three species of pottos are now recognised, with potentially more species to be revealed within this cryptic and nocturnal genus. Although there are similarities among potto species, we show that unique ecological adaptations and behaviours may further elucidate their diversity.
Wildlife trade refers to the exchange or sale of any nondomesticated animal or plant material. This can include live specimens, whole deceased specimens, or parts and products of specimens used for a vast array of purposes. Wildlife trading can range from simple transactions, such as between a single hunter and a single buyer in a localized area, to a complex international system. Primate trade in Africa has occurred for centuries, and is often important for community livelihood, culture, or traditional medicine. However, rising international demand for both dead and live primates has led to a rate of trade that is overwhelmingly unsustainable. Organizations such as CITES and TRAFFIC are working to mitigate illegal trade. Unfortunately, these efforts have struggled against corruption, political instability, and a lack of reliable data. Understanding all levels of trade, and how it impacts species survival, human needs, ecosystems, and economies is vital. It is only with international cooperation and well‐informed individuals that trade can be brought to a sustainable level.
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