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To eliminate abnormal behaviors in leopards (Panthera pardus), such as stereotypic pacing, by utilizing environmental enrichment techniques, a proper understanding of their behavior in captive environments is required. Hence there is a need for animal welfare studies in Indian zoos. The activity budgets of 16 leopards were recorded across four southern Indian zoos: Thiruvananthapuram Zoo, Arignar Anna Zoological Park, Shri Chamarajendra Zoological Gardens, and the Guindy Children's Park. Of the 16 study animals, 14 were studied onexhibit on zoo holidays as well as on days with visitors present, and all 16 individuals were studied off-exhibit on other days with visitors present. The 11 behaviors recorded were categorized into active, resting, and stereotypic behaviors. Leopards exhibited higher levels of activity in the on-exhibit enclosures on days with no visitors. Feeding time influenced the behavioral repertoire of all 14 leopards studied on-exhibit. Lower proportions of resting were exhibited during the hours before feeding. The proportion of active behaviors differed significantly across zoos. Stereotypic pacing levels were not influenced by the presence of visitors or by feeding time, but was significantly influenced by enclosure features. Higher levels of stereotypic pacing were exhibited in offexhibit than on-exhibit enclosures. Our study shows that the behavior of captive leopards is influenced by enclosure type, feeding regime, and the presence of visitors.

In this study, we dealt with 11 species of nonhuman primates across 10 zoos in India. We recorded behavior as instantaneous scans between 9 a.m. and 5 p.m. In the study, we segregated behaviors for analyses into abnormal, undesirable, active, and resting. The 4 types of abnormal behavior exhibited included floating limb, self-biting, self-clasping, and stereotypic pacing. In the study, we recorded 2 types of undesirable behavior: autoerotic stimulation and begging. Langurs and group-housed macaques did not exhibit undesirable behaviors. A male lion-tailed macaque and a male gibbon exhibited begging behavior. autoerotic stimulation and self-biting occurred rarely. Males exhibited higher levels of undesirable behavior than did females. Animals confiscated from touring zoos, circuses, and animal traders exhibited higher levels of abnormal behaviors than did animals reared in larger, recognized zoos. The stump-tailed macaque was the only species to exhibit floating limb, autoerotic stimulation, self-biting, and self-clasping. Our results show that rearing experience and group composition influence the proportions of abnormal behavior exhibited by nonhuman primates in captivity. The history of early social and environmental deprivation in these species of captive nonhuman primates probably is critical in the development of behavioral pathologies. Establishing this will require further research.

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Captive nonhuman animals use enclosure space differentially. Enclosure features strongly influence this. This study recorded both the enclosure space used by 47 captive lion-tailed macaques housed in 13 zoos across India and the behavior of the macaques. The exhibition of abnormal behaviors, food-related behaviors, and social interactions correlated significantly with the use of the edge zone (the part of the enclosure closest to the visitor area). Animals housed in barren enclosures used the edge zone to a significantly greater percentage than did those housed in complex exhibits. Percentages of autogrooming, social interactions, and food-related behaviors significantly correlated with the use of the enrich zone. Space use studies assist in recognizing areas within the enclosure, which captive animals actively use. Conversely, the studies can identify areas infrequently used and show how to make maximum use of these enclosure areas. Further studies targeting both the increase in percentages of natural behaviors exhibited and use of the enrich zone used the current study on captive lion-tailed macaques for their design.

Enclosure design and the use of enclosure space influence the activity budget of cap-tive leopards. The study laid out in grids all enclosures on the base map and segregated these grids into 4 zones. Every 5 min, the study recorded the proportion of time spent in these zones with the leopards' behavior. Captive leopards most frequently used the "edge" zone. Almost all leopards used the edge zone for stereotypic pacing, the "back" zone for resting, and the "other" zone for activity. The study positively corre-lated the proportion of time spent in the "enriched" zone with activity levels exhibited by leopards housed in some enclosures and with resting in others. Thus, the study seg-regated structural objects in the enriched zone into activity-related features (e.g., logs) and rest-related features (e.g., trees and sleeping platforms). Compared with individu-als housed in barren enclosures, leopards housed in structurally enriched on-exhibit enclosures exhibited higher levels of activity. Enclosure design was found to be an important factor influencing the welfare of leopards in captivity.

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