T(H)17 lymphocytes appear to be essential in the pathogenesis of numerous inflammatory diseases. We demonstrate here the expression of IL-17 and IL-22 receptors on blood-brain barrier endothelial cells (BBB-ECs) in multiple sclerosis lesions, and show that IL-17 and IL-22 disrupt BBB tight junctions in vitro and in vivo. Furthermore, T(H)17 lymphocytes transmigrate efficiently across BBB-ECs, highly express granzyme B, kill human neurons and promote central nervous system inflammation through CD4+ lymphocyte recruitment.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is composed of tightly bound endothelial cells (ECs) and perivascular astrocytes that regulate central nervous system (CNS) homeostasis. We showed that astrocytes secrete Sonic hedgehog and that BBB ECs express Hedgehog (Hh) receptors, which together promote BBB formation and integrity during embryonic development and adulthood. Using pharmacological inhibition and genetic inactivation of the Hh signaling pathway in ECs, we also demonstrated a critical role of the Hh pathway in promoting the immune quiescence of BBB ECs by decreasing the expression of proinflammatory mediators and the adhesion and migration of leukocytes, in vivo and in vitro. Overall, the Hh pathway provides a barrier-promoting effect and an endogenous anti-inflammatory balance to CNS-directed immune attacks, as occurs in multiple sclerosis.

Adhesion molecules of the immunoglobulin superfamily are crucial effectors of leukocyte trafficking into the central nervous system. Using a lipid raft-based proteomic approach, we identified ALCAM as an adhesion molecule involved in leukocyte migration across the blood-brain barrier (BBB). ALCAM expressed on BBB endothelium localized together with CD6 on leukocytes and with BBB endothelium transmigratory cups. ALCAM expression on BBB cells was upregulated in active multiple sclerosis and experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis lesions. Moreover, ALCAM blockade restricted the transmigration of CD4+ lymphocytes and monocytes across BBB endothelium in vitro and in vivo and reduced the severity and delayed the time of onset of experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Our findings indicate an important function for ALCAM in the recruitment of leukocytes into the brain and identify ALCAM as a potential target for the therapeutic dampening of neuroinflammation.

Trafficking of antigen-presenting cells into the CNS is essential for lymphocyte reactivation within the CNS compartment. Although perivascular dendritic cells found in inflammatory lesions are reported to polarize naive CD4+ T lymphocytes into interleukin-17-secreting-cells, the origin of those antigen-presenting cells remains controversial. We demonstrate that a subset of CD14+ monocytes migrate across the inflamed human blood-brain barrier (BBB) and differentiate into CD83+CD209+ dendritic cells under the influence of BBB-secreted transforming growth factor-beta and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor. We also demonstrate that these dendritic cells secrete interleukin-12p70, transforming growth factor-beta and interleukin-6 and promote the proliferation and expansion of distinct populations of interferon-gamma-secreting Th1 and interleukin-17-secreting Th17 CD4+ T lymphocytes. We further confirmed the abundance of such dendritic cells in situ, closely associated with microvascular BBB-endothelial cells within acute multiple sclerosis lesions, as well as a significant number of CD4+ interleukin-17+ T lymphocytes in the perivascular infiltrate. Our data support the notion that functional perivascular myeloid CNS dendritic cells arise as a consequence of migration of CD14+ monocytes across the human BBB, through the concerted actions of BBB-secreted transforming growth factor-beta and granulocyte-macrophage colony-stimulating factor.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) restricts molecular and cellular trafficking between the blood and the CNS. Although astrocytes are known to control BBB permeability, the molecular determinants of this effect remain unknown. We show that angiotensinogen (AGT) produced and secreted by astrocytes is cleaved into angiotensin II (AngII) and acts on type 1 angiotensin receptors (AT 1 ) expressed by BBB endothelial cells (ECs). Activation of AT 1 restricts the passage of molecular tracers across human BBB-derived ECs through threonine-phosphorylation of the tight junction protein occludin and its mobilization to lipid raft membrane microdomains. We also show that AGT knock-out animals have disorganized occludin strands at the level of the BBB and a diffuse accumulation of the endogenous serum protein plasminogen in the CNS, compared with wild-type animals. Finally, we demonstrate a reduction in the number of AGT-immunopositive perivascular astrocytes in multiple sclerosis (MS) lesions, which correlates with a reduced expression of occludin similarly seen in the CNS of AGT knock-out animals. Such a reduction in astrocyte-expressed AGT and AngII is dependent, in vitro, on the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-␣ and interferon-␥. Our study defines a novel physiological role for AngII in the CNS and suggests that inflammation-induced downregulation of AngII production by astrocytes is involved in BBB dysfunction in MS lesions.

Recent evidence has suggested that vascular endothelial growth factor A (VEGFA) is an important regulator of ovarian follicle development and survival. Both LH and FSH regulate Vegfa expression in granulosa cells and signal via the transcription factor hypoxia inducible factor 1 (HIF1). To further study the mechanism of action of HIF1 in the regulation of Vegfa, we studied Vegfa(delta/delta) mice, which lack a hypoxia response element in the Vegfa promoter. Granulosa cells from Vegfa(delta/delta) mice failed to respond to FSH or LH with an increase in Vegfa mRNA expression in vitro, and granulosa cells isolated from eCG-treated immature Vegfa(delta/delta) mice had significantly lower Vegfa mRNA levels compared to controls. However, normal Vegfa mRNA levels were detected in the granulosa cells from immature Vegfa(delta/delta) mice following hCG treatment. Vegfa(delta/delta) females produced infrequent litters, and their pups died shortly after birth. Ovaries from Vegfa(delta/delta) mice were much smaller than controls and contained few antral follicles and corpora lutea. Antral follicles numbers were decreased by nearly 50% in ovaries from Vegfa(delta/delta) mice relative to controls, and 74% of antral follicles in Vegfa(delta/delta) ovaries were atretic. Serum progesterone levels in adult Vegfa(delta/delta) females were significantly lower, apparently reflecting reduced numbers of corpora lutea. This study demonstrates for the first time the requirement of HIF1 for FSH-regulated Vegfa expression in vivo and that HIF1 acts via a single hypoxia response element in the Vegfa promoter to exert its regulatory functions. Our findings also further define the physiological role of VEGFA in follicle development.

The blood-brain barrier (BBB) is a highly specialized structural and functional component of the central nervous system that separates the circulating blood from the brain and spinal cord parenchyma. Brain endothelial cells (BECs) that primarily constitute the BBB are tightly interconnected by multiprotein complexes, the adherens junctions and the tight junctions, thereby creating a highly restrictive cellular barrier. Lipid-enriched membrane microdomain compartmentalization is an inherent property of BECs and allows for the apicobasal polarity of brain endothelium, temporal and spatial coordination of cell signaling events, and actin remodeling. In this manuscript, we review the role of membrane microdomains, in particular lipid rafts, in the BBB under physiological conditions and during leukocyte transmigration/diapedesis. Furthermore, we propose a classification of endothelial membrane microdomains based on their function, or at least on the function ascribed to the molecules included in such heterogeneous rafts: (1) rafts associated with interendothelial junctions and adhesion of BECs to basal lamina (scaffolding rafts); (2) rafts involved in immune cell adhesion and migration across brain endothelium (adhesion rafts); (3) rafts associated with transendothelial transport of nutrients and ions (transporter rafts).

Few targeted therapies have been developed for ovarian granulosa cell tumor (GCT), even though it represents 5% of all malignant ovarian tumors in women. As misregulation of PI3K/AKT signaling has been implicated in GCT development, we hypothesized that the AKT signaling effector mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) may play a role in the pathogenesis of GCT and could represent a therapeutic target. Analyses of human GCT samples showed an increase in protein levels of mTOR and its downstream effectors RPS6KB1, RPS6, eIF4B and PPARG relative to normal granulosa cells, suggestive of an increase in mTOR pathway activity and increased translational activity and/or protein stability. We next sought to evaluate mTOR as a GCT therapeutic target using the Pten (tm1Hwu/tmiHwu);Ctnnb1 (tm1Mmt/+);Amhr2 (tm3(cre)Bhr/+) (PCA) mouse model, in which mTOR, RPS6KB1, eIF4B and PPARG are upregulated in tumor cells in a manner similar to human GCT. Treatment of PCA mice with the mTOR-specific inhibitor everolimus reduced tumor growth rate (1.5-fold; P < 0.05) and also reduced total tumor burden (4.7-fold; P < 0.05) and increased survival rate (78 versus 44% in the vehicle group) in a PCA surgical model of GCT peritoneal carcinomatosis. Everolimus decreased tumor cell proliferation and tumor cell volume relative to controls (P < 0.05), whereas apoptosis was unaffected. Phosphorylation of RPS6KB1 and RPS6 were decreased (P < 0.05) by everolimus, but RPS6KB1, RPS6, eIF4B and PPARG expressions were not affected. These results suggest that mTOR is a valid and clinically useful pharmacological target for the treatment of GCT, although its inhibition does not reverse all consequences of aberrant PI3K/AKT signaling in the PCA model.