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Several studies have demonstrated the usefulness of leaf epidermal, and spore morphological characters in the taxonomy of genus Asplenium. However, works on the Pakistani species of Asplenium are not existent. With the objective to verify the efficacy of leaf epidermal and spore morphological traits, the leaf epidermis and spore morphology in nine Asplenium species occurring in Malakand division was studied. The spores were studied under light microscope (LM) and scanning electron microscope (SEM), whereas for leaf epidermal anatomy, the LM was used. The spores are monolete, ellipsoidal in shape, the equatorial and polar diameter ranges between 28.3 and 50.2 × 27.6 and 45.8 μm. The exospore thickness varied from 0.5 to 3.8 μm. The perispore is 0.8-3.5 μm thick, ornamented, and morphologically variable. The spores characters specifically the perispore ornamentation are useful in distinguishing species within the genus. The irregular spore shape and unusual development of perispore wall surface characterize aborted spores in the species of Asplenium × alternifolium. The most informative quantitative characters appeared to be length and width of epidermal cells, and length and width of stomata were useful to distinguish species. The most significant qualitative characters to distinguish species were the anticlinal wall pattern. Our study has shown that considerable variations exist in the leaf epidermis of Asplenium species, at least some of which has taxonomic significance. We confirmed the prevalent taxonomic value of stomatal and epidermal cells traits. The leaf epidermal anatomy and spore morphological features showed to be a good source of information for taxonomy of the genus Asplenium.

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Iron oxide nanoparticles (NPs) have attracted substantial interest due to their superparamagnetic features, biocompatibility, and nontoxicity. The latest progress in the biological production of Fe3O4 NPs by green methods has improved their quality and biological applications significantly. In this study, the fabrication of iron oxide NPs from Spirogyra hyalina and Ajuga bracteosa was conducted via an easy, environmentally friendly, and cost-effective process. The fabricated Fe3O4 NPs were characterized using various analytical methods to study their unique properties. UV-Vis absorption peaks were observed in algal and plant-based Fe3O4 NPs at 289 nm and 306 nm, respectively. Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy analyzed diverse bioactive phytochemicals present in algal and plant extracts that functioned as stabilizing and capping agents in the fabrication of algal and plant-based Fe3O4 NPs. X-ray diffraction of NPs revealed the crystalline nature of both biofabricated Fe3O4 NPs and their small size. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) revealed that algae and plant-based Fe3O4 NPs are spherical and rod-shaped, averaging 52 nm and 75 nm in size. Energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy showed that the green-synthesized Fe3O4 NPs require a high mass percentage of iron and oxygen to ensure their synthesis. The fabricated plant-based Fe3O4 NPs exhibited stronger antioxidant properties than algal-based Fe3O4 NPs. The algal-based NPs showed efficient antibacterial potential against E. coli, while the plant-based Fe3O4 NPs displayed a higher zone of inhibition against S. aureus. Moreover, plant-based Fe3O4 NPs exhibited superior scavenging and antibacterial potential compared to the algal-based Fe3O4 NPs. This might be due to the greater number of phytochemicals in plants that surround the NPs during their green fabrication. Hence, the capping of bioactive agents over iron oxide NPs improves antibacterial applications.