Introduction The Ras proteins (K-Ras, N-Ras, H-Ras) are GTPases that function as molecular switches for a variety of critical cellular activities and their function is tightly and temporally regulated in normal cells. Oncogenic mutations in the RAS genes, which create constitutively-active Ras proteins, can result in uncontrolled proliferation or survival in tumor cells. Areas covered The paper discusses three therapeutic approaches targeting the Ras pathway in cancer: 1) Ras itself, 2) Ras downstream pathways, and 3) synthetic lethality. The most adopted approach is targeting Ras downstream signaling, and specifically the PI3K-AKT-mTOR and Raf-MEK pathways, as they are frequently major oncogenic drivers in cancers with high Ras signaling. Although direct targeting of Ras has not been successful clinically, newer approaches being investigated in preclinical studies, such as RNA interference-based and synthetic lethal approaches, promise great potential for clinical application. Expert opinion The challenges of current and emerging therapeutics include the lack of “tumor specificity” and their limitation to those cancers which are “dependent” upon aberrant Ras signaling for survival. While the newer approaches have the potential to overcome these limitations, they also highlight the importance of robust preclinical studies and bidirectional translational research for successful clinical development of Ras-related targeted therapies.
Although dispensable for normal pancreatic function, STAT3 signaling is frequently activated in pancreatic cancers. Consistent downregulation of expression of microRNA let-7 is also characteristic of pancreatic ductal adenocarcinoma (PDAC) biopsy specimens. We demonstrate in this study that re-expression of let-7 in poorly-differentiated PDAC cell lines reduced phosphorylation/activation of STAT3 and its downstream signaling events and reduced the growth and migration of PDAC cells. Let-7 re-expression did not repress expression of STAT3 protein or its activator cytokine interleukin 6 (IL-6). However, let-7 re-expression enhanced cytoplasmic expression of suppressor of cytokine signaling 3 (SOCS3), which blocks STAT3 activation by JAK2. Our study thus identified a mechanism by which STAT3 signaling can be inhibited in pancreatic cancer cells by modifying let-7 expression.
NRAS is the second most frequently mutated gene in melanoma. Previous reports have demonstrated the sensitivity of cancer cell lines carrying KRAS mutations to apoptosis initiated by inhibition of protein kinase C delta (PKCδ). Here, we report that PKCδ inhibition is cytotoxic in melanomas with primary NRAS mutations. Novel small-molecule inhibitors of PKCδ were designed as chimeric hybrids of two naturally-occurring PKCδ inhibitors, staurosporine and rottlerin. The specific hypothesis interrogated and validated is that combining two domains of two naturally-occurring PKCδ inhibitors into a chimeric or hybrid structure retains biochemical and biological activity, and improves PKCδ isozyme selectivity. We have devised a potentially general synthetic protocol to make these chimeric species using Molander trifluorborate coupling chemistry. Inhibition of PKCδ, by siRNA or small molecule inhibitors, suppressed the growth of multiple melanoma cell lines carrying NRAS mutations, mediated via caspase-dependent apoptosis. Following PKCδ inhibition, the stress-responsive JNK pathway was activated, leading to the activation of H2AX. Consistent with recent reports on the apoptotic role of phospho-H2AX, knockdown of H2AX prior to PKCδ inhibition mitigated the induction of caspase-dependent apoptosis. Furthermore, PKCδ inhibition effectively induced cytotoxicity in BRAF-mutant melanoma cell lines that had evolved resistance to a BRAF inhibitor, suggesting the potential clinical application of targeting PKCδ in patients who have relapsed following treatment with BRAF inhibitors. Taken together, the present work demonstrates that inhibition of PKCδ by novel small molecule inhibitors causes caspase-dependent apoptosis mediated via the JNK-H2AX pathway in melanomas with NRAS mutations or BRAF inhibitor-resistance.
The concept of targeting cancer therapeutics towards specific mutations or abnormalities in tumor cells which are not found in normal tissues has the potential advantages of high selectivity for the tumor and correspondingly low secondary toxicities. Many human malignancies display activating mutations in the Ras family of signal-transducing genes or over-activity of p21Ras-signaling pathways. Carcinoid and other neuroendocrine tumors similarly have been demonstrated to have activation of Ras signaling directly by mutations in Ras, indirectly by loss of Ras-regulatory proteins, or via constitutive activation of upstream or downstream effector pathways of Ras, such as growth factor receptors or PI3-Kinase and Raf/MAP kinases. We previously reported that aberrant activation of Ras signaling sensitizes cells to apoptosis when the activity of the PKCδ isozyme is suppressed, and that PKCδ suppression is not toxic to cells with normal levels of p21Ras signaling. We demonstrate here that inhibition of PKCδ by a number of independent means, including genetic mechanisms (shRNA) or small molecule inhibitors, is able to efficiently and selectively repress the growth of human neuroendocrine cell lines derived from bronchopulmonary, foregut or hindgut tumors. PKCδ inhibition in these tumors also efficiently induced apoptosis. Exposure to small-molecule inhibitors of PKCδ over a period of 24 hr is sufficient to significantly suppress cell growth and clonogenic capacity of these tumor cell lines. Neuroendocrine tumors are typically refractory to conventional therapeutic approaches. This Ras-targeted therapeutic approach, mediated through PKCδ suppression, which selectively takes advantage of the very oncogenic mutations which contribute to the malignancy of the tumor, may hold potential as a novel therapeutic modality.
Metastatic melanoma is the major cause of skin cancer death, and the annual incidence of melanoma continues to increase. Despite the impressively high rates of response to BRAF inhibitors in patients with melanomas harboring BRAF mutations, most of these patients eventually relapse after developing resistance to the drug, due in part to secondary mutations in NRAS. Although NRAS mutation is the second most common genetic mutation in melanoma patients (after BRAF mutation), there is currently no treatment option that targets NRAS-mutated melanomas. New targeted therapies are urgently needed. Our previous reports have demonstrated the sensitivity of pancreatic cancer cell lines carrying oncogenic KRAS mutations to apoptosis initiated by inhibition of protein kinase C delta (PKCd), suggesting that PKCd inhibitors might be effective in melanomas with primary or acquired NRAS mutations. PKCd is not required for normal mammalian development, making it a potential tumor-specific target. In this study, we investigated the effect of PKCd inhibition, and the efficacy of a new PKCd inhibitor BJE6-106 (B106), in melanoma. Inhibition of PKCd by B106 (at nano-molar concentrations), or by siRNA, inhibited the growth of multiple melanoma cell lines carrying NRAS mutations, and induced apoptosis mediated by terminal caspase activation. Analysis of the molecular mechanisms involved in this NRAS signaling-targeted approach demonstrated activation of the JNK pathway after PKCd inhibition, leading to the activation (phosphorylation) of H2AX, a histone H2A variant. Activation of H2AX was attenuated when JNK1/2 levels were repressed, indicating that H2AX activation is mediated by the JNK pathway in response to PKCd inhibition. Although the phosphorylation of H2AX has in the past been primarily known for its role in repair of DNA double strand breakage, more recent studies have proposed an active role for phospho-H2AX in the induction of apoptosis. Consistent with these reports, knockdown of H2AX prior to inhibition of PKCd mitigated the induction of caspase-dependent apoptosis in NRAS mutant melanoma cell lines. To explore the potential activity of new PKCd inhibitors in inhibitor-resistant BRAF-mutant tumors, we derived melanoma cell lines harboring BRAF mutations that evolved resistance to a BRAF inhibitor PLX4032 (vemurafenib). B106 effectively induced cytotoxicity in these cells, suggesting the potential clinical application of targeting PKCd in patients who have relapsed following treatment with PLX4032. Taken together, our present study suggests that inhibition of PKCd causes caspase-dependent apoptosis in melanomas with NRAS mutations and in PLX4032-resistant BRAF mutant melanomas. This apoptosis is mediated via activation of the JNK-H2AX pathway, which involves a novel role for phospho-H2AX in the execution of apoptosis. Citation Format: Asami Takashima, Douglas V. Faller. Inhibition of protein kinase C delta induces apoptosis through JNK-H2AX pathway in melanoma. [abstract]. In: Proceedings of the 104th Annual Meeting of the American Association for Cancer Research; 2013 Apr 6-10; Washington, DC. Philadelphia (PA): AACR; Cancer Res 2013;73(8 Suppl):Abstract nr 2342. doi:10.1158/1538-7445.AM2013-2342
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