In the absence of entomological information, tools for predicting Anopheles spp. presence can help evaluate the entomological risk of malaria transmission. Here, we illustrate how species distribution models (SDM) could quantify potential dominant vector species presence in malaria elimination settings. We fitted a 250 m resolution ensemble SDM for Anopheles albimanus Wiedemann. The ensemble SDM included predictions based on seven different algorithms, 110 occurrence records and 70 model projections. SDM covariates included nine environmental variables that were selected based on their importance from an original set of 28 layers that included remotely and spatially interpolated locally measured variables for the land surface of Costa Rica. Goodness of fit for the ensemble SDM was very high, with a minimum AUC of 0.79. We used the resulting ensemble SDM to evaluate differences in habitat suitability (HS) between commercial plantations and surrounding landscapes, finding a higher HS in pineapple and oil palm plantations, suggestive of An. albimanus presence, than in surrounding landscapes. The ensemble SDM suggested a low HS for An. albimanus at the presumed epicenter of malaria transmission during 2018–2019 in Costa Rica, yet this vector was likely present at the two main towns also affected by the epidemic. Our results illustrate how ensemble SDMs in malaria elimination settings can provide information that could help to improve vector surveillance and control.

Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762) is considered the most important mosquito vector species for several arboviruses (e.g., dengue, chikungunya, Zika) in Costa Rica. The primary strategy for the control and prevention of Aedes-borne diseases relies on insecticide-based vector control. However, the emergence of insecticide resistance in the mosquito populations presents a significant threat to these prevention actions. The characterization of the mechanisms driving the insecticide resistance in Ae. aegypti is vital for decision making in vector control programs. Therefore, we analyzed the voltage-gated sodium channel (VGSC) gene for the presence of the V1016I and F1534C kdr mutations in Ae. aegypti populations from Puntarenas and Limon provinces, Costa Rica. The CDC bottle bioassays showed that both Costa Rican Ae. aegypti populations were resistant to permethrin and deltamethrin. In the case of kdr genotyping, results revealed the co-occurrence of V1016I and F1534C mutations in permethrin and deltamethrin-resistant populations, as well as the fixation of the 1534C allele. A strong association between these mutations and permethrin and deltamethrin resistance was found in Puntarenas. Limon did not show this association; however, our results indicate that the Limon population analyzed is not under the same selective pressure as Puntarenas for the VGSC gene. Therefore, our findings make an urgent call to expand the knowledge about the insecticide resistance status and mechanisms in the Costa Rican populations of Ae. aegypti, which must be a priority to develop an effective resistance management plan.

In an era where preventive medicine is increasingly important due to an ageing population and rising obesity, optimised diets are key to improving health and reducing risk of ill health. The Wellcome Trust-funded, EDESIA: Plants, Food and Health: a cross-disciplinary PhD programme from Crop to Clinic (218 467/Z/19/Z) focuses on investigating plant-based nutrition and health, from crop to clinic, drawing on the world-class interdisciplinary research expertise of partner institutions based on the

26Aedes aegypti (Linnaeus, 1762) is considered the most important mosquito vector species for 27 several arboviruses (e.g., dengue, chikungunya, Zika) in Costa Rica. The main strategy for the 28 control and prevention of Aedes-borne diseases relies on insecticide-based vector control. 29However, the emergence of insecticide resistance in the mosquito populations present a big 30 threat for the prevention actions. The characterization of the mechanisms driving the insecticide 31 resistance in Ae. aegypti are vital for decision making in vector control programs. Therefore, 32 we analyzed the voltage-gated sodium channel gene for the presence of the V1016I and 33 F1534C kdr mutations in pyrethroid-resistant Ae. aegypti populations from Puntarenas and 34 Limon provinces, Costa Rica. The CDC bottle bioassays showed that both Costa Rican Ae. 35 aegypti populations were resistant to permethrin and deltamethrin. In the case of kdr 36 genotyping, results revealed the co-occurrence of V1016I and F1534C mutations in permethrin 37 and deltamethrin-resistant populations, as well as the fixation of the 1534C allele. Therefore, 38 our findings make an urgent call to expand the knowledge about the insecticide resistance status 39 and mechanisms in the Costa Rican populations of Ae. aegypti which must be a priority to 40 develop an effective resistance management plan.41 42