Jordan faces great internal water scarcity and pollution, conflict over trans-boundary waters, and strong dependency on external water resources through trade. This paper analyzes these issues and subsequently reviews options to reduce the risk of extreme water scarcity and dependency. Based on estimates of water footprint, water availability, and virtual water trade, we find that groundwater consumption is nearly double the groundwater availability, water pollution aggravates blue water scarcity, and Jordan's external virtual water import dependency is 86%. The review of response options yields 10 ingredients for a strategy for Jordan to mitigate the risks of extreme water scarcity and dependency. With respect to these ingredients, Jordan's current water policy requires a strong redirection towards water demand management. Actual implementation of the plans in the national water strategy (against existing oppositions) would be a first step. However, more attention should be paid to reducing water demand by changing the consumption pattern of Jordanian consumers. Moreover, unsustainable exploitation of the fossil Disi aquifer should soon be halted and planned desalination projects require careful consideration regarding the sustainability of their energy supply.
OPEN ACCESSWater 2015, 7 5706
Large deposits of impure kaolins exist in Jordan and many parts of the world; geoplymers can reduce environmental impacts and have multi-application in many fields, such as water purification, waste treatment, fire proof construction, etc. The aim of this research is to investigate the use of alkali activated zeolitic tuff and low purity metakaolin as precursors for the production of functional geoplymers exhibiting proper mechanical properties and high potential for water storage and decontamination of polluted solutions. The results confirmed that this type of geopolymers showed superior mechanical characteristics and higher adsorption capacity towards heavy metals such as Cu(II) ions, which was similar to natural zeolite. X-ray diffraction analysis showed that phillipsite, a major zeolite mineral, disappeared upon geopolymerization, while scanning electron microscopy analysis showed that geopolymers exhibit a porous matrix of nano-particles. The geopolymers have also displayed high compressive strength and tensile bending strength of about 7.8 MPa and 45 MPa respectively, compared to reference geopolymers. This functional-geopolymers indicate that they are efficient, cost effective and have a potential for number of applications including construction, water storage and wastewater treatment.
Pumping of 82 MCM/yr from Mujib Basin (Eastern Dead Sea), coupled with the 54 MCM/yr recharge rate, has led to diminished groundwater levels and dramatically affects ecosystem services. Climate change compounds these issues by reducing recharge and increasing the ecosystem's hydrological demand. This paper investigates groundwater resilience to climatic changes in Mujib Basin by modeling resilience for the years 2014 and 2050. Resilience of groundwater was modeled to long term changes as "low" in the central parts of the study area due to low saturated thickness and high pumping rates. Resilience was modeled as "high" to "very high" in areas with high saturated thickness and higher replenishment rates. Water budget components were modeled through the J2000 hydrological model, giving a groundwater recharge of 54 MCM/yr. Statistical downscaling of global circulation models indicated a 21% decline in precipitation by the year 2080 with 2 and 3° increases in maximum and minimum temperature respectively. Recharge for the year 2050 was recalculated based on the downscaling and prediction results to be 30% less than current recharge. Continuous over-pumping with recharge reduction will cause a 30-70% reduction in saturated thickness by the same year. Modeling groundwater resilience under the new conditions showed a severe impact on the study area especially the central parts which are expected to comprise a semi dry aquifer by 2050.
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