Diabetics were found to be 2.5 times more likely to have onychomycosis than the controls. Predisposing factors included increasing age, male gender, duration of diabetes, impaired peripheral circulation, peripheral neuropathy and retinopathy.
In recent years, role of radiology in ABPA has evolved. Radiology plays an important role not only in diagnosis but also classification and prognostication of the disease. A radiologist should also be familiar with the clinical spectrum and laboratory findings of the disease.
Copper plays a key role in host-pathogen interaction. We found that duringLeishmania majorinfection, the parasite-harboring macrophage regulates its copper homeostasis pathway in a way to facilitate copper-mediated neutralization of the pathogen. Copper-ATPase ATP7A transports copper to amastigote-harboring phagolysosomes to induce stress on parasites.Leishmaniain order to evade the copper stress, utilizes a variety of manipulative measures to lower the host-induced copper stress. It induces deglycosylation and degradation of host-ATP7A and downregulation of copper importer, CTR1 by cysteine oxidation. Additionally,Leishmaniainduces CTR1 endocytosis that arrests copper uptake. In mouse model of infection, we report an increase in systemic bioavailable copper in infected animals. Heart acts as the major organ for diverting its copper reserves to systemic circulation to fight-off infection by downregulating its CTR1. Our study explores reciprocal mechanism of manipulation of host copper homeostasis pathway by macrophage andLeishmaniato gain respective advantages in host-pathogen interaction.
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