In this paper, we adopt a theoretical approach to integrate two streams of literature-that is, entrepreneurship orientation (EO) and liability of foreignness (LOF)-to examine the dual effect of EO and foreignness on international entrepreneurs. First, we argue for the need for developing the constructs of EO and LOF at the individual level (referred to as IEO and ILOF, respectively), as previous research has primarily examined them at the firm level. Then, we develop a 4S framework to characterize entrepreneurs based on their EO and foreignness into four categories-star, survivor, struggler, and slider-and offer predictions on their relative performance.

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Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to present our viewpoint on the research on foreignness and provide directions for future studies. We suggest that research on foreignness can be expanded by exploring its complexity. Design/methodology/approach – This article takes the form of a viewpoint. Findings – We identify three facets of foreignness – foreignness effect (liabilities or assets) foreignness level (organizational or individual) and foreignness locus (external or internal to an entity), which have not been sufficiently examined in prior research. Originality/value – We discuss how these aspects can inform a novel research agenda in this area.

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