A narrow and partial theoretical base has limited current concepts of expatriate adjustment and the research based upon them. This conceptual article explores one of the less theorized aspects of expatriate adjustment: the fact that it has multiple dimensions. We conceive of adjustment as a person‐environment relationship that takes place in the three dimensions of cognitions, feelings, and behaviors. Combining these elements takes us one step closer to a comprehensive and more realistic understanding of the nature of expatriate adjustment. We include suggestions for future research that follow from our reconceptualization.

This paper argues that the notion of adjustment to careers involving international assignments needs to be developed further than the current literature refl ects. An expatriate assignment is an expatriate's opportunity to build career capital and a company's opportunity to generate social and intellectual capital. The extent of the capital gains will depend considerably on the expatriate's adjustment during and after the assignment, which is infl uenced by the psychological contract. We argue that our understanding of the career impact of expatriation will be enhanced by a more refi ned picture of the adjustment that expatriates experience during the assignment and during repatriation. In particular, we examine adjustment as process rather than as event. We propose a broad conception of expatriate adjustment and its link to careers.

Purpose -This paper seeks to review and explore the relatively neglected notion of the adjustment of expatriate families to living abroad with the aim of developing a new model that can be used for future research. Design/methodology/approach -The paper draws on the few studies of the topic that have been carried out, but widens the search to include evidence from the related adjustment and family stress literature to create a new model of the process. Using the ideas of stressors, strains and hassles, capabilities, and shared meanings, the paper examines the situation of the expatriate family and explores how families can adjust to life in another country. Findings -By adopting a salutogenic approach and incorporating insights from these other literatures, the paper shows that family adaptation is a complex and many-faceted process. It is a process that greater awareness on the part of the family and the organization can improve. Research limitations/implications -With the help of the model of family adjustment the paper points to systematic gaps in studies on expatriate families and outlines a consequent research agenda. Practical implications -Awareness is a crucial element in adjustment. The paper shows that awareness by the family can alleviate problems, and that organizations employing members of the family can assist in the adjustment process for the family. Originality/value -The contribution of the paper comes in its attempt to encompass what is known about expatriate family adaptation directly with a wider view of family adjustment. This provides both a practical framework for future research and some practical implications.

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This conceptual article explores the role of temporal dynamics in the study of expatriate adjustment. We introduce the dimensions and the domains of adjustment and discuss the dynamics between them, as well as the dynamics between antecedents, state and consequences of adjustment. Issues such as the role of time lags, duration and rate of change as well as reciprocal causation are discussed. We address the consequences of these issues for theory building in the area of expatriate adjustment and the implications for methodological choices. We conclude with specific recommendations for the future research of expatriate adjustment that recognise the nature of adjustment as a process evolving over time and that we hope will enhance the rigour and relevance of this area of research.

Abstract:Women are still underrepresented in expatriate assignments. This study investigates whether there are any gender differences in expatriate adjustment that could help account for the low share of female expatriates. The study replicates the analysis of Selmer and Leung's (2003) exploratory research. It confirms their findings and adds further detail to the understanding of gender differences in expatriate adjustment. The study is based on a crosssectional survey, mainly of employed members in UK and US women's clubs in Frankfurt and Madrid and their partners. This study shows that women tend to be better adjusted than men overall. They are ahead especially in important areas such as the building and maintaining of relationships. The paper provides important insight into the differences in adjustment among female and male expatriate employees. It provides an instrument that can be used in the further study of these differences. The study supplies further evidence that companies err if they fail to send women on assignments abroad.

Purpose -The management literature on cross-cultural adaptation has used a conceptualisation and measurement approach developed by Black and Stephens. Their work has led to significant development in the field. Now it is time to move beyond and use a more refined tool. This paper proposes such a tool and compares its characteristics with those of the older instrument. Design/methodology/approach -The paper is based on a sample of 204 expatriates, who were surveyed using the older and the proposed instrument. It uses confirmatory factor analysis to compare the two instruments. Independent variables include cultural difference and language skills. Findings -This study demonstrates that a more refined measurement of adaptation outcomes, which distinguishes cognitive and affective factors and four non-work facets, is superior to measurement based on the older instrument. The new scale also provides a case for the improvement of cross-cultural adaptation theory. Research limitations/implications -The paper is based on a cross-sectional sample and sample size is relatively small for confirmatory factor analysis. Additional research is necessary to corroborate the evidence presented here about the superiority of the proposed measure. The paper provides researchers with a new tool for use in cross-cultural adaptation studies. Originality/value -The paper describes a new, empirically developed measurement tool for cross-cultural adaptation.Keywords Expatriates, Cross-cultural management, Management effectiveness, Measurement Paper type Research paperFor over a decade, many cross-cultural adaptation studies (e.g. Black, 1990a, b, Black and Gregersen, 1991a, Black, 1994, Taylor and Napier, 1996a, Robie and Ryan, 1996, Aycan, 1997, Kraimer et al., 2001, Selmer, 2001, Takeuchi et al., 2002 in the management literature have looked at a three-fold split initially proposed by Black (1988): general adjustment, interaction adjustment, and work adjustment. A subsequent measure developed by Black and Stephens (1989) has fairly consistently reproduced these three facets in these studies.The literature in the wake of the Black and Stephens questionnaire has contributed greatly to our understanding of cross-cultural adaptation of expatriates. Yet, there are a few problems associated with the measure: it was not developed in a systematic, theory-driven way; it measures adaptation one-dimensionally on an adjusted-unadjusted range; the three facets of adjustment may be an artefact of the unsystematically chosen items going into the original measure.

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