Gerry Killeen and colleagues argue that malaria eradication efforts will not be successful until a better understanding of the ecology and evolution of the mosquito vectors is gained.

The Rex protein of human T-cell lymphotropic virus type 1 (HTLV-1) mediates the cytoplasmic localization of incompletely spliced and unspliced viral RNAs (24). Rex is a member of a family of functionally related proteins, generally known as the Rev-like proteins, which are found in complex retroviruses. The Rev-like proteins have at least two essential domains with unique functions, (i) a specific RNA binding activity that interacts with structural response elements within the viral mRNAs and (ii) an effector or activation domain that facilitates interaction with endogenous pathways (12,17,20). The effector domain of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) Rev has recently been demonstrated to be a nuclear export signal (NES) (9, 31). A NES in the cyclic AMP (cAMP)-dependent protein kinase inhibitor has a sequence similar to those of the effector domains of Rev-like proteins (31). Studies of chimeric proteins have demonstrated that the effector domains of many Rev-like proteins can act in a heterologous context. For example, the effector domains of viral Rev-like proteins can complement the function of an effector domain mutant of HIV-1 or visna virus Rev (10,12,19,29).The identified effector domains of Rev-like proteins fall into two classes, as shown in Fig.

Phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL) genomic sequences were isolated from a rice (Oryza sativa L.) genomic library using a PCR-amplified rice PAL DNA fragment as a probe. There is a small family of PAL genes in the rice genome. The nucleotide sequence of one PAL gene, ZB8, was determined. The ZB8 gene is 4660 bp in length and consists of two exons and one intron. It encodes a polypeptide of 710 amino acids. The transcription start site was 137 bp upstream from the translation initiation site. Rice PAL transcripts accumulated to a high level in stems, with lower levels in roots and leaves. Wounding of leaf tissues induced ZB8 PAL transcripts to a high level. In rice suspension-cultured cells treated with fungal cell wall elicitors, the ZB8 PAL transcript increased within 30 min and reached maximum levels in 1-2 h. The transcription of the ZB8 gene was investigated by fusing its promoter to the reporter gene beta-glucuronidase (GUS) and transforming the construct into rice and tobacco plants, as well as rice suspension-cultured cells. High levels of GUS activity were observed in stems, moderate levels in roots and low levels in leaves of transgenic rice and tobacco plants. Histochemical analysis indicated that in transgenic rice the promoter was active in root apical tips, lateral root initiation sites, and vascular and epidermal tissues of stems and roots. In rice flowers, high GUS activity was observed in floral shoots, receptacles, anthers and filaments, occasionally GUS activity was also detected in lemma and awn tissues. In tobacco flowers, high GUS activity was detected in the pink part of petals. Consistent with the activity of endogenous PAL transcripts, wounding of rice and tobacco leaf tissues induced GUS activity from low basal levels. Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) infection of tobacco leaves induced GUS activity to a high level. Fungal cell wall elicitors strongly induced GUS activity and GUS transcripts to high levels in transgenic rice suspension-cultured cells. We demonstrated that the promoter of ZB8 gene is both developmentally regulated and stress-inducible.

The RNAs of the hepatitis B virus (HBV) contain a cis-acting regulatory element which facilitates the cytoplasmic localization of unspliced transcripts (

Antimicrobial resistance (AMR) has emerged as a major public health concern, around which the international leadership has come together to form strategic partnerships and action plans. The main driving force behind the emergence of AMR is selection pressure created due to consumption of antibiotics. Consumption of antibiotics in human as well as animal sectors are driven by a complex interplay of determinants, many of which are typical to the local settings. Several sensitive and essential realities are tied with antibiotic consumption – food security, livelihoods, poverty alleviation, healthcare access and national economies, to name a few. That makes one-size-fits-all policies, framed with the developed country context in mind, inappropriate for developing countries. Many countries in the South East Asian Region have some policy structures in place to deal with AMR, but most of them lack detailed implementation plans or monitoring structures. In this current debates piece, the authors argue that the principles driving the AMR agenda in the South East Asian countries need to be dealt with using locally relevant policy structures. Strategies, which have successfully reduced the burden of AMR in the developed countries, should be evaluated in the developing country contexts instead of ad hoc implementation. The Global Action Plan on AMR encourages member states to develop locally relevant National Action Plans on AMR. This policy position should be leveraged to develop and deploy locally relevant strategies, which are based on a situation analysis of the local systems, and are likely to meet the needs of the individual member states.