This article discusses development during the early adolescent years with a focus on recent research on the biological, cognitive, self-identity, and motivational changes that occur during this time period and the implications of this research for middle school counselors. Peer influences on early adolescents also are discussed, with the issue of school bullying receiving special attention. Studies are presented about how positive relations between teachers and students, and counselors and students, can ease the transition. Research is presented showing the positive effects of counseling programs designed to ease students’ transition into middle school, along with suggestions for restructuring the roles of middle school counselors in order to be responsive to the developmental needs of early adolescents.

Impaired inhibitory control accompanied by enhanced salience attributed to drug-related cues, both associated with function of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC), are hallmarks of drug addiction, contributing to worse symptomatology including craving. dlPFC modulation with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) previously showed craving reduction in inpatients with cocaine use disorder (CUD). Our study aimed at assessing feasibility of a longer tDCS protocol in CUD (15 versus the common five/10 sessions) and replicability of previous results. In a randomized double-blind sham-controlled protocol, 17 inpatients with CUD were assigned to either a real-tDCS (right anodal/left cathodal) or a sham-tDCS condition for 15 sessions. Following the previous report, primary outcome measures were self-reported craving, anxiety, depression, and quality of life. Secondary measures included sleepiness, readiness to change drug use, and affect. We also assessed cognitive function including impulsivity. An 88% retention rate demonstrated feasibility. Partially supporting the previous results, there was a trend for self-reported craving to decrease in the real-tDCS group more than the sham-group, an effect that would reach significance with 15 subjects per group. Quality of life and impulsivity improved over time in treatment in both groups. Daytime sleepiness and readiness to change drug use showed significant Group × Time interactions whereby improvements were noted only in the real-tDCS group. One-month follow-up suggested transient effects of tDCS on sleepiness and craving. These preliminary results suggest the need for including more subjects to show a unique effect of real-tDCS on craving and examine the duration of this effect. After replication in larger sample sizes, increased vigilance and motivation to change drug use in the real-tDCS group may suggest fortification of dlPFC-supported executive functions. K E Y W O R D S cocaine use disorder, dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, drug addiction, self-reported craving, transcranial direct current stimulation | 3213 GAUDREAULT ET AL.

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Emerging research on psychological adjustment during the COVID-19 outbreak has suggested that young people may be particularly vulnerable to increases in negative affect during the pandemic. However, the association between alcohol use in youth and change in negative affect during this unprecedented time is not clear. Using an online survey, this study obtained scores on negative affect (before and during the COVID-19 pandemic), pandemic-related stress, change in drinking frequency, and traits including resilience, impulsivity and anhedonia, from a sample of drinkers and non-drinkers, up to the age of 21. Young drinkers experienced a greater increase in negative affect during the pandemic compared to non-drinkers, and this differential rise in negative affect was mediated by the pandemic-related stress of social isolation. Young drinkers also experienced a decrease in alcohol use during the pandemic, but this was not associated with a change in negative affect. Interestingly, young drinkers with greater resilience and lower anhedonia reported less increase in negative affect during the COVID-19 pandemic. Taken together, these results show that the greater increase in negative affect that young drinkers experienced during the COVID-19 pandemic, compared to their non-drinking counterparts, was mediated by pandemic-related social isolation. Moreover, greater resilience and lower anhedonia may have served as protective factors for mitigating the social isolation-induced worsening of negative affect in young drinkers during the pandemic. These findings may inform future studies investigating potential indicators of maladaptive affective responses to public health crises in vulnerable adolescent populations.

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Impaired inhibitory control accompanied by enhanced salience attributed to drug-related cues, both dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (dlPFC) functions, are hallmarks of drug addiction, contributing to worse symptomatology including craving. dlPFC modulation with transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) showed craving reduction in inpatients with cocaine use disorder (CUD). Our study aimed at assessing feasibility of a longer tDCS protocol in CUD (15 vs. the common five/10 sessions), and replicability of previous results. In a randomized double-blind sham-controlled protocol, 17 inpatients were assigned to either a real-tDCS (right anodal/left cathodal) or a sham-tDCS condition, for 15 sessions. Primary outcome measures were self-reported craving, anxiety, depression, and quality of life. Secondary measures included sleepiness, readiness to change drug use, and affect. We also assessed cognitive function including impulsivity. An 82% retention rate demonstrated feasibility. Partially supporting previous results, there was a trend for self-reported craving to decrease in the real-tDCS group more than the sham group, an effect that would reach significance with 15 subjects per group. Quality of life and impulsivity improved over time of treatment in both groups. Significant group × time interactions showed improvements after treatment only in the real-tDCS group for daytime sleepiness and readiness to change drug use. One-month follow-up suggested transient effects of tDCS on sleepiness and craving. This study suggests that more subjects are needed to show a unique effect of real-tDCS on craving and to examine the duration of effect. Increased vigilance and motivation to change in the real-tDCS group suggest fortification of dlPFC-supported executive functions.

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