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Student reports are a common approach to characterizing how students experience their classrooms. We used a recently developed method-multilevel confirmatory factor analysis-to determine whether commonly employed measures of achievement goal structure constructs (mastery and performance) typically verified at the student level can be verified at the classroom level as well, using a sample of 1,406 7th-and 1,822 8th-grade students in 188 mathematics classrooms. Nine multilevel confirmatory factor analyses were examined: (a) modeling each classroom goal structure dimension separately (mastery, performance-approach, performance-avoidance, combined performance), (b) 4 models allowing 2 latent factors to covary (mastery ϩ performance-approach, mastery ϩ performance-avoidance, performance-approach ϩ performance-avoidance, mastery ϩ combined performance), and (c) a model reflecting the trichotomous goals framework (mastery ϩ performance-approach ϩ performanceavoidance). Consistent with prior research, the theorized models of classroom goal structure adequately represented students within the same classroom at Level 1. Although all models were acceptable at the individual level, only the performance-avoidance model represented the expected goal structure at the classroom level. Future research and replication are necessary to examine whether self-reports of classroom goal structure, and by implication other measures of classroom climate, reflect an individuallevel phenomenon rather than a classroom-level construct, which has important theoretical and applied implications.

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Identifying which early mathematics skills have the largest effects on later mathematics achievement has important implications. However, regression-based estimates often rely on untested assumptions: (a) Scores on different mathematics skills reflect unique constructs, and (b) other factors affecting early and later mathematics achievement are fully controlled. We illustrate a process to test these assumptions with a sample of third and fourth graders who completed measures of mathematics skills, working memory and motivation, and standardized mathematics and English language arts tests. Factor analyses indicated that mathematics skills largely reflect the same underlying construct. The skills that loaded highest on the general factor most predicted both later mathematics and English language arts, even after adjusting for working memory and motivation. Findings suggest that relations between earlier mathematics and later achievement largely reflected more general factors that contribute to children's learning. We discuss the importance of establishing construct validity in correlational studies. et al.Construct Confounding Among Predictors research-article2016Note. Model fit indices were compared to cutoff values indicating good model fit according to Hu and Bentler (1999), where values on comparative fit index (CFI) and TuckerLewis Index (TLI) ≥.90 to .95 indicate adequate to excellent fit and where that for root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) ≤.06 and .08 indicates adequate to excellent fit, respectively. EFA = exploratory factor analysis; SRMR = standardized root mean square residual. a Highest and lowest loading on the general math factor.