Regeneration of cartilage defects can be accelerated by localized delivery of appropriate growth factors (GFs) from scaffolds. In the present study we analysed the in vitro and in vivo release rates and delivery efficacies of transforming growth factor-β1 (TGFβ1) and bone morphogenetic protein-2 (BMP-2) from a bilayered system, applied for osteochondral defect repair in a rabbit model. A bone-orientated, porous PLGA cylinder was overlaid with GF containing PLGA microspheres, dispersed in an alginate matrix. Four microsphere formulations were incorporated: (a) blank ones; (b) microspheres containing 50 ng TGFβ1; (c) microspheres containing 2.5 µg BMP-2; and (d) microspheres containing 5 µg BMP-2. Release kinetics and tissue distributions were determined using iodinated ((125) I) GFs. Bioactivity of in vitro released BMP-2 and TGFβ1 was confirmed in cell-based assays. In vivo release profiles indicated good GF release control. 20% of BMP-2 and 15% of TGFβ1 were released during the first day. Virtually the total dose was delivered at the end of week 6. Significant histological differences were observed between untreated and GF-treated specimens, there being especially relevant short-term outcomes with 50 ng TGFβ1 and 5 µg BMP-2. Although the evaluation scores for the newly formed cartilage did not differ significantly, 5 µg BMP-2 gave rise to higher quality cartilage with improved surface regularity, tissue integration and increased collagen-type II and aggrecan immunoreactivity 2 weeks post-implantation. Hence, the bilayered system controlled GF release rates and led to preserved cartilage integrity from 12 weeks up to at least 24 weeks.
Sterically stabilized biocompatible poly(lactic acid) (PLA) nanospheres were prepared by an o/w emulsion/evaporation technique, using hydrophobically modified dextrans (DexP) as the emulsion stabilizer. Photon correlation spectroscopy, zetametry, and differential scanning calorimetry studies corroborated that interfacial adhesion between immiscible dextran and PLA chains was achieved by compatibilization of polymer segments via hydrophobic groups grafted onto dextran and thus leading to the formation of entanglements between the hydrophobic dextran parts and the PLA matrix. The presence of dextran exposed at the particle surface was confirmed by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy and by the fact that the suspensions showed an increased stability in concentrated NaCl solutions and a reduction of bovine serum albumin adsorption compared to uncoated PLA nanoparticles. A comparison of the characteristics of PLA nanospheres DexP-coated via the emulsion procedure (NS(em)) with those of PLA particles coated by DexP adsorption (NS(ad)) suggests that the conformation of the polymer in the superficial layers may be different. However, both DexP layers behave similarly in terms of stability and protein adsorption.
Bone regeneration and vascularization with porous PLGA scaffolds loaded with VEGF (0.35 and 1.75 μg) and BMP-2 (3.5 and 17.5 μg), incorporated in PLGA microspheres, or the combination of either dose of BMP-2 with the low dose of VEGF were investigated in an intramedullary femur defect in rabbits. The system was designed to control growth factor (GF) release and maintain the GFs localized within the defect. An incomplete release was observed in vitro whereas in vivo VEGF and BMP-2 were totally delivered during 3 and 4 weeks, respectively. A weak synergistic effect of the dual delivery of VEGF and BMP-2 (high dose) was found by 4 weeks. However, the absence of an apparent synergistic long-term effect (12 weeks) of the combination over BMP-2 alone suggests that more work has to be done to optimize VEGF dose, sequential presentation, and the ratio of the two GFs to obtain a beneficial bone repair response.
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