Reading disability (RD) typically consists of deficits in word reading accuracy and/or reading comprehension. While it is well known that word reading accuracy deficits lead to comprehension deficits (general reading disability, GRD), less is understood about neuropsychological profiles of children who exhibit adequate word reading accuracy but nevertheless develop specific reading comprehension deficits (S-RCD). Establishing the underlying neuropsychological processes associated with different RD types is essential for ultimately understanding core neurobiological bases of reading comprehension. To this end, the present study investigated isolated and contextual word fluency, oral language, and executive function on reading comprehension performance in 56 9-to 14-year-old children [21 typically developing (TD), 18 GRD, and 17 S-RCD]. Results indicated that TD and S-RCD participants read isolated words at a faster rate than participants with GRD; however, both RD groups had contextual word fluency and oral language weaknesses. Additionally, S-RCD participants showed prominent weaknesses in executive function. Implications for understanding the neuropsychological bases for reading comprehension are discussed. KeywordsExecutive function; Fluency; Oral language; Reading comprehension; Reading disabilities It is well established that many children and adolescents have inadequate reading comprehension (NAEP, 2003). Because comprehension of text is the ultimate goal of the reader, difficulty in reading comprehension has far-reaching consequences not just for school achievement but also for a student's future educational and occupational opportunities. Until recently, many researchers assumed that bottom-up skills (word recognition and decoding) were the predominate reason for difficulty with reading comprehension. Indeed, various independent researchers have demonstrated that if a reader is seriously deficient at decoding and recognizing words, this will necessarily impede successful comprehension (see Lyon,Correspondence to: Laurie E. Cutting. 1995;Torgesen, 2000). Furthermore, it is thought that not just accuracy in bottom-up skills is important but also their efficiency or speed as well. Slow word reading increases demands placed on other processes, such as working memory, which in turn poses difficulties for comprehending connected text and thus creates a processing bottleneck (e.g., Perfetti & Hogaboam, 1975;Perfetti, Marron, & Foltz, 1996;Wolf & Katzir-Cohen, 2001;Shankweiler, 1999). NIH Public AccessOther lines of research, however, suggest that reading comprehension deficits can arise for multiple distinct reasons, which include, but are not limited to, weaknesses in bottom-up skills (Cain & Oakhill, 2006;Catts, Fey, Zhang, & Tomblin, 1999;Biancarosa & Snow, 2004;Catts, Hogan, Adof, & Barth, 2003a;Leach, Scarborough, & Rescorla, 2003; McCardle, Scarborough, & Catts, 2001;Nation & Snowling, 2000Scarborough, 1990Scarborough, , 2005Snow, 2002). This is especially illustrated by the population of childre...

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Skilled reading depends upon successfully integrating orthographic, phonological, and semantic information; however, the process of becoming a skilled reader with efficient neural circuitry is not fully understood. Short-term learning paradigms can provide insight into learning mechanisms by revealing differential responses to training approaches. To date, neuroimaging studies have primarily focused on effects of teaching novel words either in isolation or in context, without directly comparing the two. The current study compared the behavioral and neurobiological effects of learning novel pseudowords (i.e., pronouncing and attaching meaning) trained either in isolation or in sentential context. Behavioral results showed generally comparable pseudoword learning for both conditions, but sentential context-trained pseudowords were spoken and comprehended slightly more quickly. Neurobiologically, fMRI activity for reading trained pseudowords was similar to real words; however, an interaction between training approach and reading proficiency was observed. Specifically, highly skilled readers showed similar levels of activity regardless of training approach. However, less skilled readers differentiated between training conditions, showing comparable activity to highly skilled readers only for isolation-trained pseudowords. Overall, behavioral and neurobiological findings suggest that training approach may affect rate of learning and neural circuitry, and that less skilled readers may need explicit training to develop optimal neural pathways.