Recent re-evaluations of dietary reference values (DRV) for vitamin D have established intake requirements between 10 and 20 µg/d. National nutrition surveys indicate that habitual mean intakes of vitamin D in the population are typically in the range 3-7 µg/d. As vitamin D supplementation will not be effective at a population level because the uptake is generally low, creative food-based solutions are needed to bridge the gap between current intakes and these new requirement values. The overarching aim of this review is to highlight how food-based solutions can have an important role in bridging this gap and counteracting vitamin D inadequacy in Europe and elsewhere. The present review initially briefly overviews very recent new European DRV for vitamin D and, while not in agreement on requirement estimates, how they point very clearly to the need for food-based solutions. The review discusses the need for traditional fortification of foods in the dairy and other sectors, and finally overviews recent advances in the area of biofortification of food with vitamin D. In conclusion, increasing vitamin D intakes across the population distribution is important from a public health perspective to reduce the high degree of inadequacy of vitamin D intake in Europe. Fortification, including biofortification, of a wider range of foods, which accommodate diversity, is likely to have the potential to increase vitamin D intakes across the population distribution. Research has had, and will continue to have, a key role in terms of developing food-based solutions and tackling vitamin D deficiency.
Weekly consumption of 7 vitamin D-enhanced eggs has an important impact on winter vitamin D status in adults. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02678364.
This study investigated the effects of synthetic and natural sources of vitamin D biofortification in pig diets on pork vitamin D activity and pork quality. One hundred and twenty pigs (60 male, 60 female) were assigned to one of four dietary treatments for a 55 d feeding period. The dietary treatments were (1)50 μg vitamin D₃/kg of feed; (2)50 μg of 25-hydroxvitamin D₃/kg of feed (25-OH-D₃); (3)50 μg vitamin D₂/kg of feed; (4)50 μg vitamin D₂-enriched mushrooms/kg of feed (Mushroom D₂). The pigs offered the 25-OH-D₃ diet exhibited the highest (P < 0.001) serum total 25-hydroxyvitamin D concentration and subsequently exhibited the highest (P < 0.05) Longissimus thoracis (LT) total vitamin D activity. Mushroom D and 25-OH-D supplementation increased pork antioxidant status. The vitamin D₂-enriched mushrooms improved (P < 0.05) pig performance, carcass weight and LT colour. In conclusion, 25-OH-D₃ is the most successful source for increasing pork vitamin D activity, while Mushroom D may be a new avenue to improve animal performance and pork quality.
Fundamental knowledge gaps in relation to the 3 epimer of 25-hydroxycholecalciferol [3-epi-25(OH)D₃] limit our understanding of its relevance for vitamin D nutrition and health. The aims of this study were to characterize the 3-epi-25(OH)D₃ concentrations in a nationally representative sample of adults and explore its determinants. We also used data from a recent randomized controlled trial (RCT) of supplemental cholecalciferol (vitamin D₃) conducted in winter in older adults to directly test the impact of changes in vitamin D status on serum 3-epi-25(OH)D3 concentrations. Serum 25-hydroxycholecalciferol [25(OH)D₃] and 3-epi-25(OH)D₃ concentrations (via LC-tandem mass spectrometry) from our vitamin D₃ RCT in adults (aged ≥50 y) and data on dietary, lifestyle, and biochemical characteristics of participants of the recent National Adult Nutrition Survey in Ireland (aged 18-84 y; n = 1122) were used in the present work. In the subsample of participants who had serum 3-epi-25(OH)D₃ concentrations greater than the limit of quantification (n = 1082; 96.4%), the mean, 10th, 50th (median), and 90th percentile concentrations were 2.50, 1.05, 2.18, and 4.30 nmol/L, respectively, whereas the maximum 3-epi-25(OH)D₃ concentration was 15.0 nmol/L. A regression model [explaining 29.9% of the variability in serum 3-epi-25(OH)D₃] showed that age >50 y, vitamin D supplement use, dietary vitamin D, meat intake, season of blood sampling, and sun exposure habits were significant positive determinants, whereas increasing waist circumference and serum 25-hydroxyergocalciferol concentration were significant negative determinants. The RCT data showed that mean serum 25(OH)D₃ and 3-epi-25(OH)D₃ concentrations increased (49.3% and 42.1%, respectively) and decreased (-28.0% and -29.1%, respectively) significantly (P < 0.0001) with vitamin D₃ (20 μg/d) and placebo supplementation, respectively, over 15 wk of winter. In conclusion, we provide data on serum 3-epi-25(OH)D₃ in a nationally representative sample of adults. Our combined observational and RCT data might suggest that both dietary supply and dermal synthesis of vitamin D₃ contribute to serum 3-epi-25(OH)D₃ concentration.
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