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Contamination of animal feed with mycotoxins still occurs very often, despite great efforts in preventing it. Animal feeds are contaminated, at low levels, with several mycotoxins, particularly with those produced by Aspergillus and Fusarium genera (Aflatoxin B Ochratoxin A, Zearalenone, Deoxynivalenol and Fumonisina B). In animal feed, to date, only Aflatoxin B is limited through EU regulation. Consequently, mycotoxins cause serious disorders and diseases in farm animals. In 2009, the European Union (386/2009/EC) approved the use of mycotoxin-detoxifying agents, as feed additives, to prevent mycotoxicoses in farm animals. The present review gives an overview of the problem of multi-mycotoxin contamination of feed, and aims to classify mycotoxin adsorbing agents (minerals, organic, and synthetic) for feed decontamination, focusing on adsorbents with the ability to bind to multiple mycotoxins, which should have a more effective application in farms but they are still little studied in scientific literature.

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Mycotoxins comprise a family of fungal toxins, many of which have been implicated as chemical progenitors of toxicity in man and animals. The most thoroughly studied are the aflatoxins. A variety of physical, chemical, and biological methods to counteract the mycotoxin problem have been reported, but large-scale, practical, and cost-effective methods for detoxifying mycotoxin-containing feedstuffs are currently not available. The most recent approach to the problem has been the addition to the animal's diet of nonnutritive sorbents that sequester mycotoxins and reduce their gastrointestinal absorption, avoiding their toxic effects on livestock and toxin carryover into animal products. This review comments on the in vitro efficacy of several of the adsorbents assayed, and their in vivo applications in a range of animals will be discussed. The sorbents reviewed are activated charcoal, bentonite, zeolite, hydrated sodium calcium aluminosilicate (HSCAS) and a wide variety of clays and synthetic ion-exchange resins.

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Aims: The effects of water activity (0AE90-0AE99 a w ), temperature (15-37°C), and their interaction on growth and ochratoxin A (OTA) production by eight isolates of Aspergillus carbonarius were investigated on synthetic nutrient medium (SNM) with composition similar to grapes. Methods and Results: Growth data were modelled by an multiple linear regression and response surface models were obtained. Aspergillus carbonarius grew much faster at 30°C than at the other temperature levels tested and its growth rate increased with increasing a w , maximum growth rate being between 0AE95 and 0AE99 a w . In general, isolates grew faster at 35-37°C than at 20°C, although no significant differences were found between these temperatures. OTA accumulation was also favoured by high a w levels, and although it was observed in the whole range of temperatures, maximum amounts were detected at 20°C. No OTA was found at the most unfavourable growth conditions. Conclusions: Optimum a w level for growth seems to correspond with optimum for OTA production, meanwhile the most propitious temperature for the toxin production was below the best one for growth. Significance and Impact of the Study: Prediction of A. carbonarius growth would allow estimating their presence and therefore, the OTA production, as it was found that conditions for the toxin production were more limited than those permitting growth.

No abstract

The fate of deoxynivalenol (DON) and ochratoxin A (OTA) during the breadmaking process was studied. In particular, toxin content was analysed in mixed baking ingredients before kneading, after fermentation and proofing, and finally after baking. Fermentation and proofing were carried out at 30 C for 1 h, while baking was performed at different temperature levels (from 170 to 210 C) and baking times from 45 to 135 min, in a full factorial design. DON increased from unkneaded mix to fermented dough, and decreased due to baking; this trend depended on the initial concentration of DON in the flour. The level in the bread was significantly lower than in the initial mix of ingredients. In contrast, deoxynivalenol-3-glucoside (DON-3-G) content increased both during kneading and fermentation, and also during baking. Moreover, the results confirmed the high stability of OTA as no significant change in its content could be observed as a result of the breadmaking process. As conclusion, the design of bakery product processes may help to control DON in final products, because although quite stable, its levels can be reduced to some extent. However, high levels of DON-3-G were released during baking, and this point should be further investigated. Mycotoxins have been always considered as stable compounds; however, in depth knowledge of the processing steps that may lead to some reduction (although limited) and those which can stimulate their release from conjugated forms, will definitely help in their control in finished foodstuffs.