Traditional robots 1 rely on computing to coordinate sensing and actuating components and to store internal representations of their goals and environment. Any implementation of single-molecule based robotics must overcome the limited ability of individual molecules to store complex programs and, for example, use architectures that obtain complex behaviors from the interaction of simple robots with their environment [2][3][4] . Previous research in DNA walkers 5 focused on transitioning from non-autonomous systems 6, 7 to directed but brief motion on one-dimensional tracks8 -11. Herein, we obtain elementary robotic behaviors from the interaction between a random walker incorporating deoxyribozymes 12 and a precisely defined environment. Using singlemolecule microscopies we demonstrate that such walkers achieve directionality by sensing and modifying their environment, following trails of recognition elements ("bread crumbs") laid out on a two-dimensional DNA origami landscape 13 . These molecular robots autonomously carry out sequences of actions such as "start", "follow", "turn", and "stop", thus laying the foundation for the synthesis of more complex robotic behaviors at the molecular level by incorporating additional layers of control mechanisms. For example, interactions between multiple molecular robots could lead to collective behavior14 , 15, while the ability to read and transform secondary cues on the landscape could provide a mechanism for Turing-universal algorithmic behavior2 ,16,17 .Author Contributions: AFM experiments were performed by K.L. (majority), J.N., and N. D.; analysis was performed by N. D., K.L., J.N., S.T., and supervised by E.W., and H.Y. Fluorescence microscopy and particle tracking analysis were performed by A.J.M., N.M., and A.J.B, supervised by N. G. W. Spiders were synthesized, purified, and their integrity confirmed and monitored by S.T. SPR experiments were performed by R. P. Research coordination by M.N.S., material transfer coordination by S.T., J.N., and K.L. Experimental design and manuscript was done with input from all authors. Author Information: Reprints and permissions information is available at npg.nature.com/reprintsandpermissions. The authors declare no competing financial interests. Correspondence and requests for materials should be addressed to: mns18@columbia.edu, winfree@caltech.edu, nwalter@umich.edu, hao.yan@asu.edu Supplementary Information is linked to the online version of the paper at www.nature.com/nature. NIH Public Access Author ManuscriptNature. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 November 1. Restated in a biochemically more intuitive manner: A deoxyribozyme on a site that was previously converted to a product will dissociate faster, whereas it will stick longer on the substrates and eventually cleave them. Because spiders have multiple legs, a single dissociated leg will quickly reattach to nearby product or substrate. It follows that the body of a spider positioned at the interface between products and substrates will move toward the s...

Single molecule microscopy has evolved into the ultimate-sensitivity toolkit to study systems from small molecules to living cells, with the prospect of revolutionizing the modern biosciences. Here we survey the current state-of-the-art in single molecule tools including fluorescence spectroscopy, tethered particle microscopy, optical and magnetic tweezers, and atomic force microscopy. Our review seeks to guide the biological scientist in choosing the right approach from the available single molecule toolkit for applications ranging as far as structural biology, enzymology, nanotechnology, and systems biology.

To satisfy the high demand for ribosome synthesis in rapidly growing eukaryotic cells, short duplexes between the U3 small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) and the precursor ribosomal RNA (pre-rRNA) must form quickly and with high yield. These interactions, designated the U3-ETS and U3-18S duplexes, are essential to initiate the processing of small subunit rRNA. Previously, we showed in vitro that duplexes corresponding to those in Saccharomyces cerevisiae are only observed after addition of one of two proteins: Imp3p or Imp4p. Here, we used fluorescence-based and other in vitro assays to determine whether these proteins possess RNA chaperone activities and to assess whether these activities are sufficient to satisfy the duplex yield and rate requirements expected in vivo. Assembly of both proteins with the U3 snoRNA into a chaperone complex destabilizes a U3-stem structure, apparently to expose its 18S base-pairing site. As a result, the chaperone complex accelerates formation of the U3-18S duplex from an undetectable rate to one comparable to the intrinsic rate observed for hybridizing short duplexes. The chaperone complex also stabilizes the U3-ETS duplex by 2.7 kcal/mol. These chaperone activities provide high U3-ETS duplex yield and rapid U3-18S duplex formation over a broad concentration range to help ensure that the U3-pre-rRNA interactions limit neither ribosome biogenesis nor rapid cell growth. The thermodynamic and kinetic framework used is general and thus suitable to investigate the mechanism of action of other RNA chaperones.

Experimental and theoretical results in support of nonlinear dynamic behavior of photosynthetic reaction centers under light-activated conditions are presented. Different conditions of light adaptation allow for preparation of reaction centers in either of two different conformational states. These states were detected both by short actinic flashes and by the switching of the actinic illumination level between different stationary state values. In the second method, the equilibration kinetics of reaction centers isolated from Rhodobacter sphaeroides were shown to be inherently biphasic. The fast and slow equilibration kinetics are shown to correspond to electron transfer (charge separation) at a fixed structure and to combined electron-conformational transitions governed by the bounded diffusion along the potential surface, respectively. The primary donor recovery kinetics after an actinic flash revealed a pronounced dependence on the time interval (deltat) between cessation of a lengthy preillumination of a sample and the actinic flash. A pronounced slow relaxation component with a decay half time of more than 50 s was measured for deltat > 10 s. This component corresponds to charge recombination in reaction centers for which light-induced structural changes have not relaxed completely before the flash. The amplitude of this component depended on the conditions of the sample preparation, specifically on the type of detergent used in the preparation. The redox potential parameters as well as the structural diffusion constants were estimated for samples prepared in different ways.

The recent shift among developers of microfluidic technologies toward modularized "plug and play" construction reflects the steadily increasing realization that, for many would-be users of microfluidic tools, traditional clean-room microfabrication is prohibitively complex and/or expensive. In this work, we present an advanced modular microfluidic construction scheme in which pre-fabricated microfluidic assembly blocks (MABs) can be quickly fashioned, without expertise or specialized facilities, into sophisticated microfluidic devices for a wide range of applications. Specifically, we describe three major advances to the MAB concept: (1) rapid production and extraction of MABs using flexible casting trays, (2) use of pre-coated substrates for simultaneous assembly and bonding, and (3) modification of block design to include automatic alignment and sealing structures. Finally, several exemplary applications of these MABs are demonstrated in chemical gradient synthesis, droplet generation, and total internal reflection fluorescence microscopy.

Nucleic acid nanotechnology exploits the programmable molecular recognition properties of natural and synthetic nucleic acids to assemble structures with nanometer-scale precision. In 2006, DNA origami transformed the field by providing a versatile platform for self-assembly of arbitrary shapes from one long DNA strand held in place by hundreds of short, site-specific (spatially addressable) DNA ”staples”. This revolutionary approach has led to the creation of a multitude of 2D and 3D scaffolds that form the basis for functional nanodevices. Not limited to nucleic acids, these nanodevices can incorporate other structural and functional materials, such as proteins and nanoparticles, making them broadly useful for current and future applications in emerging fields such as nanomedicine, nanoelectronics, and alternative energy.

Recent improvements in methods of single-particle fluorescence tracking have permitted detailed studies of molecular motion on the nanometer scale. In a quest to introduce these tools to the burgeoning field of DNA nanotechnology, we have exploited fluorescence imaging with one-nanometer accuracy (FIONA) and single-molecule high-resolution colocalization (SHREC) to monitor the diffusive behavior of synthetic molecular walkers, dubbed “spiders”, at the single-molecule level. Here we discuss the imaging methods used, results from tracking individual spiders on pseudo-one-dimensional surfaces, and some of the unique experimental challenges presented by the low velocities (~3 nm/min) of these nanowalkers. These experiments demonstrate the promise of fluorescent particle tracking as a tool for the detailed characterization of synthetic molecular nanosystems at the single-molecule level.

Nonequilibrium dynamic effects in membrane-bound reaction centers (RCs) from photosynthetic bacteria are studied for the first time. We show that the accumulation of slow conformational changes triggered by chargeseparation events in the RCs control system dynamics and depend on illumination conditions in a way similar to that for isolated RCs. The light-induced, transient kinetics of membrane-bound RCs are described using a model of electron-conformational transitions governed by system diffusion along the surface of a doublewell, effective adiabatic potential. The light-triggered conformational transitions in the chromatophores are estimated to occur at an actinic light intensity at least 10 times lower than that needed for conformational transitions in isolated RCs. This finding is attributed to efficient, multiple-scattering effects that occur in sample with membranes. Related optical properties of the chromatophores as a disordered system with multiple light scattering are characterized for the first time.