Type 1 diabetes is associated with chronic hyperglycemia and exposure to intermittent severe hypoglycemia. The long-term cerebral effects of these consequences of diabetes are ill defined. In this study, the history of preceding severe hypoglycemia and the presence of background retinopathy were examined in relation to cognitive ability (neuropsychological test battery) and brain structure (magnetic resonance imaging) in a cross-sectional evaluation of 74 young people with type 1 diabetes. Participants differed by their severe hypoglycemia exposure and degree of diabetic retinopathy and none had previous neuropsychological pathology. Severe hypoglycemia did not influence cognitive ability or brain structure. Background diabetic retinopathy was associated with small focal white-matter hyperintensities in the basal ganglia (33.3 vs. 4.7%, after correction for age, P ‫؍‬ 0.005) and significant cognitive disadvantage, affecting fluid intelligence (P ‫؍‬ 0.008, Eta 2 ‫؍‬ 0.14), information processing (P ‫؍‬ 0.001, Eta 2 ‫؍‬ 0.22), and attention and concentration ability (P ‫؍‬ 0.03, Eta 2 ‫؍‬ 0.09). In conclusion, recurrent exposure to severe hypoglycemia alone in young people with type 1 diabetes had no detrimental impact on brain structure or function over the duration of diabetes examined. Chronic hyperglycemia (inferred by the presence of background diabetic retinopathy) may affect brain structure and function. Diabetes 52: 149 -156, 2003

OBJECTIVE -Children who develop type 1 diabetes before age 7 years (early-onset diabetes; EOD) have comparatively poorer cognitive abilities. Whether this relates to psychosocial consequences of chronic illness or organic factors related to diabetes and its complications remains unresolved. We hypothesized that if differences in neuroradiological structure and cognitive ability coexisted in those who had EOD, then an organic component to their etiology was likely. RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS-A cohort of 71 young adults with longduration type 1 diabetes diagnosed during childhood or adolescence participated in a crosssectional evaluation of cognitive ability (neuropsychological test battery) and brain structure (magnetic resonance imaging). Diabetes onset age, preceding severe hypoglycemia exposure, retinopathy status, and diabetes duration were examined as potential correlates of cognitive and neuroradiological differences. No participants had previous neuropsychological pathology.RESULTS -In EOD participants (n ϭ 26), current intellectual ability (Wechsler Adult Intelligence ScaleϪRevised performance IQ; P ϭ 0.03) and information processing ability (Choice Reaction Time; P ϭ 0.006) were comparatively poorer than was observed in those with lateronset diabetes (n ϭ 45). Furthermore, lateral ventricular volumes were 37% greater (P ϭ 0.002) and ventricular atrophy was more prevalent (61 vs. 20%; P ϭ 0.01) in the EOD group than in those who had later-onset type 1 diabetes.CONCLUSIONS -An early childhood onset of type 1 diabetes was associated with mild central brain atrophy and significant differences in intellectual performance in adulthood, implying that neurodevelopment may be adversely affected by EOD. The differences observed in brain structure support an organic contribution to their etiology but do not exclude a coexistent contribution of psychosocial factors. Diabetes Care 28:1431-1437, 2005O ptimal intellectual development may be compromised by early childhood onset type 1 diabetes. The diabetes-related factor most consistently related to later intellectual ability is the onset age of type 1 diabetes; children developing the disorder in early childhood are more likely to score relatively poorly on cognitive tests, independent of diabetes duration. Ack et al.(1) first identified an association between early-onset type 1 diabetes (EOD) and comparatively lower general intelligence test scores; children with diabetes averaged 10 IQ points lower than their siblings. Subsequent studies identified small-tomoderate permanent differences in nonverbal (2-5) and verbal (6) intelligence, information processing (3,7-9), visuospatial ability (3-5), attention (7-11), executive function (7,9,12), and learning and memory ability (2,3,7). Prospective evaluation has confirmed that EOD independently influences verbal and nonverbal intelligence, attention, psychomotor speed, and executive functions (6,9). Some researchers have suggested that the differences in intellectual ability may reflect chronic hyperglycemia, severe hypog...

Background and Purpose-More than 30% of out-of-hospital cardiac arrest (OHCA) survivors suffer significant memory impairment. The hippocampus may be vulnerable to hypoxic injury during cardiac arrest. The purpose of this study was to determine whether selective hippocampal injury is the substrate for this memory impairment. Methods-Seventeen OHCA survivors and 12 patients with uncomplicated myocardial infarction were studied. OHCA survivors were divided into those with impaired and intact memory.