Background-We examined performance on a self-referenced memory (SRM) task for higher functioning children with autism (HFA) and a matched comparison group. SRM performance was examined in relation to symptom severity and social cognitive tests of mentalizing.

Variation in temperament is characteristic of all people but is rarely studied as a predictor of individual differences among individuals with autism. Relative to a matched comparison sample, adolescents with High-Functioning Autism (HFA) reported lower levels of Surgency and higher levels of Negative Affect. Variability in temperament predicted symptomotology, social skills, and social-emotional outcomes differently for individuals with HFA than for the comparison sample. This study is unique in that temperament was measured by self-report, while all outcome measures were reported by parents. The broader implications of this study suggest that by identifying individual variability in constructs, such as temperament, that may influence adaptive functioning, interventions may be developed to target these constructs and increase the likelihood that individuals with HFA will achieve more adaptive life outcomes. Keywordshigh-functioning autism; temperament; symptomology; social emotional functioning; social skills Temperament as a Predictor of Symptomotology and Adaptive Functioning in Adolescents with High-Functioning AutismTemperament is thought to reflect constitutionally based individual differences in reactivity and self-regulation, which influences the ways in which individuals adjust and respond to environmental changes (Rothbart, Posner, & Hershey, 1995). More specifically, reactivity refers to variability in the biological changes, such as the excitability and arousal of behavioral and physiological systems, which occur in response to environmental stimuli (Rothbart et al., 1995;Rothbart & Derryberry, 1981). Reactivity includes both emotional reactions and behavioral action tendencies (Rothbart & Bates, 2006). Self-regulation refers to aspects of temperament, such as effortful control and attention regulation, which serve to modulate reactivity (Rothbart & Bates, 2006;Rothbart et al., 1995). Early research on childhood temperament identified nine dimensions measuring reactivity and self-regulation: activity level, rhythmicity, approach/withdrawal, adaptability, intensity, mood, attention span/ persistence, distractibility, and threshold (Thomas, Chess, Birch, Hertzig, & Korn, 1963;Rothbart & Bates, 2006). However, current classifications of temperament have collapsed the nine dimensions into four broad factors: Surgency/Extroversion, Negative Emotionality, Effortful Control, and Agreeableness/Adaptability (Rothbart & Bates, 2006).Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Heather A. Henderson, Department of Psychology, University of Miami, 5665 Ponce de Leon Boulevard, Coral Gables, Florida 33146. E-mail: E-mail: h.henderson@miami.edu. Peter C. Mundy is now at the School of Education, University of California at Davis. NIH Public AccessAuthor Manuscript J Autism Dev Disord. Author manuscript; available in PMC 2010 June 1. NIH-PA Author ManuscriptNIH-PA Author Manuscript NIH-PA Author ManuscriptTemperament is a species general characteristic, meaning that variations in temperament...

The study of phenotypic variability in social impairments and comorbid emotional disorders in autism is important because it provides information on phenotypic differences that currently complicate diagnosis, research, and treatment of this disorder. Currently, though, relatively little is known about the processes that contribute to individual differences in social impairments and comorbidity in autism. In this paper, we present a model that suggests modifier processes (MPs), which are not necessarily specific to the syndrome refractor alter the expression of autism and contribute to fundamental behavioral and psychological differences in children diagnosed with this disorder. One MPs involves the somewhat surprising tendency of some children with higher functioning autism (HFA) to make attributions about other peoples thoughts, although they have social cognitive deficits Just as in other children, the attributions of children with HFA are linked to some of their behavioral problems Another MP involves the influence of differences in motivation associated with the behavioral activation and inhibition systems that can be assessed with measures of anterior EEG asymmetry. This dimension of motivation may be linked to how active but inappropriate and withdrawn children with HFA may appear. Third, differences in the self-monitoring of errors among children with HFA appear to be related to individual differences in IQ and social symptom severity in these children. The possible role of these MPs in diagnostic subgroups and differences in treatment responses among children with HFA are discussed. In addition, the role of MPs in understanding the effects associated with specific genetic functions in autism, such as those associated with the serotonin transporter gene (5-HTTLPR), is discussed. A conclusion of this paper is that the varied expression of autism may require that we understand how autism interacts with other non-syndromespecific processes that are related to individual differences in all people. DESCRIPTORS phenotypic variability; comorbity; self-monitoring; motivation and attributional processes; autism Children affected by autism and other pervasive developmental disorders (PDD) display significant individual differences in social behavior, development, and outcomes (Beglinger & Smith, 2001;Prior et al., 1998). These differences are very clear among older children with higher functioning autism (HFA) (Prior et al., 1998) and can be complicated by the presence of comorbid emotional disturbance, such as anxiety and depression (Kim, Szatmari, Bryson, Streiner, & Wilsonet, 2000). Understanding the nature of these differences is important for several reasons. The study of variability in social impairments and comorbidity in autism may assist in understanding phenotypic (i.e., visible) differences that currently complicate diagnosis, research, and treatment of this disorder (Beauchaine, 2003;Beglinger & Smith, 2001;Piven, 2002 its association with depression-and anxiety-related disorders (Bolton et al....

Individual differences in the expression of autism complicate research on the nature and treatment of this disorder. In the Modifier Model of Autism (Mundy et al. 2007), we proposed that individual differences in autism may result not only from syndrome specific causal processes, but also from variability in generic, non-syndrome specific modifier processes that affect the social and emotional development of all people. One study supporting this model found that measures of resting anterior EEG asymmetry, a measure reflecting complex brain processes associated with generic individual differences in approach and avoidance motivation, may help explain differences in the expression of autism in children without intellectual disabilities (Sutton et al. 2005). In the current study, we partially replicated the observation that children with autism who exhibited a pattern of left frontal EEG asymmetry tended to display milder levels of social symptoms, although in the current sample this pattern applied only to HFA children with relatively lower verbal IQs. New observations indicated that left frontal EEG asymmetry was also associated with retrospective parent reports of significantly later age of onset of symptoms, but also higher levels of self-reported outward expressions of anger as well as symptoms of obsessive compulsive disorder in school-age higher functioning children with ASD. Therefore, the results of this study provide a new and fully independent set of observations, which indicate that individual differences in anterior EEG asymmetry may significantly moderate the expression and developmental course of autism. This observation may have clinical implications for identifying meaningful diagnostic sub-groups among children with autism.

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