1. Agricultural management intensity and landscape heterogeneity act as the main drivers of biodiversity loss in agricultural landscapes while also determining ecosystem services. The trait-based functional diversity approach offers a way to assess changes in community functionality across agroecosystems. We focused on carabids and spiders, because they are an important component of crop field biodiversity and have significant biological control potential.2. We assessed the effect of small-vs. large-scale agricultural landscapes, organic farming, and within-field position on functional diversity of spiders and carabids.We sampled pairs of organic and conventional winter wheat fields in small-scale agricultural landscapes (former West Germany) and in neighbouring large-scale agricultural landscapes (former East Germany). We sampled arthropods with funnel traps in transects at field edges, field interiors (15 m from edge), and field centres.3. The gradient from field edges towards the centres played an important role: spider body size decreased; ballooning ability increased, and hunting strategy switched from active hunters to more web-builders-presumably, due to higher microhabitat stability in the field centre. Higher trait diversity of spiders in field edges suggested higher biocontrol potential in small-scale agriculture. In contrast, carabid feeding switched from herbivores to carnivores, presumably due to higher pest densities inside crop fields. Furthermore, small-scale agricultural landscapes and organic management supported larger, i.e., less dispersive carabids. Synthesis and applications.In our research, spiders were more sensitive to edge effects and less sensitive to management and landscape composition than carabids. Smaller fields and longer edges, as well as organic management increase carabid functional diversity, which may increase resilience to environmental change. Since many spider species are confined to field edges, the effect of withinfield position on functional diversity is more important in small-scale agricultural landscapes with more edge habitat than in large-scale agricultural landscapes. Our findings suggest that European Union policy should acknowledge the high benefits of small-scale agriculture for the functional role of major predators such as spiders and carabid beetles, as the benefits are equal to those from a conversion to organic agriculture. 64 | Journal of Applied Ecology GALLÉ et AL.

Apple is considered the most important fruit crop in temperate areas and profitable production depends on multiple ecosystem services, including the reduction of pest damage and the provision of sufficient pollination levels. Management approaches present an inherent trade‐off as each affects species differently. We quantified the direct and indirect effects of management (organic vs. integrated pest management, IPM) on species richness, ecosystem services, and fruit production in 85 apple orchards in three European countries. We also quantified how habit composition influenced these effects at three spatial scales: within orchards, adjacent to orchards, and in the surrounding landscape. Organic management resulted in 48% lower yield than IPM, and also that the variation between orchards was large with some organic orchards having a higher yield than the average yield of IPM orchards. The lower yield in organic orchards resulted directly from management practices, and from higher pest damage in organic orchards. These negative yield effects were partly offset by indirect positive effects from more natural enemies and higher flower visitation rates in organic orchards. Two factors other than management affected species richness and ecosystem services. Higher cover of flowering plants within and adjacent to the apple trees increased flower visitation rates by pollinating insects and a higher cover of apple orchards in the landscape decreased species richness of beneficial arthropods. The species richness of beneficial arthropods in orchards was uncorrelated with fruit production, suggesting that diversity can be increased without large yield loss. At the same time, organic orchards had 38% higher species richness than IPM orchards, an effect that is likely due to differences in pest management. Synthesis and applications. Our results indicate that organic management is more efficient than integrated pest management in developing environmentally friendly apple orchards with higher species richness. We also demonstrate that there is no inherent trade‐off between species richness and yield. Development of more environmentally friendly means for pest control, which do not negatively affect pollination services, needs to be a priority for sustainable apple production.

18Pollinators are sensitive to agricultural intensification at both local and landscape scales. High 19 configurational landscape heterogeneity due to small fields and a high amount of field 20 boundaries is hypothesized to enhance farmland biodiversity. Here, we investigated the 21 effects of organic vs. conventional farming in large-vs. small-scale agricultural landscapes on 22 wild bee communities and their floral resources to improve conservation schemes for 23 pollinators. We sampled bees in Central Germany at the field boundaries of 18 pairs of 24 conventionally and organically managed winter wheat fields along the former iron curtain 25 using pan traps and trap nests. Around traps, we surveyed species richness and flower cover 26 of insect-pollinated forbs. Compared to conventional farming, organic farming was related to 27 higher insect-pollinated forb species richness and flower cover in the field boundaries, 28 presumably due to the lack of herbicide use. Interestingly, small-scale agriculture did not 29 counteract the loss of floral resources under conventional management, as the difference to 30 organic management was even larger in Western small-scale agriculture. Organic farming, but 31 not small-scale agriculture, enhanced species richness of solitary bees, which is in line with 32 their small home ranges. In contrast, bumblebees benefitted only from small-scale agriculture, 33 which matches with their high dispersal ability. Despite similar levels of abundance and 34 diversity of trap-nesting bees in the two landscape types, brood cell parasitism was also 35 higher in small-scale agriculture. Both organic farming and small-scale agriculture directly 36 and indirectly supported different groups of wild bees, suggesting long-term benefits for 37 conservation. Agri-environment schemes should acknowledge the so far neglected benefits of 38 small-scale agriculture for biodiversity and its potential services. 39 40