Antibodies against nuclear self-antigens are characteristic of systemic autoimmunity, although mechanisms promoting their generation and selection are unclear. Here, we report that B cells containing the Y-linked autoimmune accelerator (Yaa) locus are intrinsically biased toward nucleolar antigens because of increased expression of TLR7, a single-stranded RNA-binding innate immune receptor. The TLR7 gene is duplicated in Yaa mice because of a 4-Megabase expansion of the pseudoautosomal region. These results reveal high divergence in mouse Y chromosomes and represent a good example of gene copy number qualitatively altering a polygenic disease manifestation.

Protein-tyrosine kinases play crucial roles in mast cell activation through the high-affinity IgE receptor (FcεRI). In this study, we have made the following observations on growth properties and FcεRI-mediated signal transduction of primary cultured mast cells from Btk-, Lyn-, and Btk/Lyn-deficient mice. First, Lyn deficiency partially reversed the survival effect of Btk deficiency. Second, FcεRI-induced degranulation and leukotriene release were almost abrogated in Btk/Lyn doubly deficient mast cells while singly deficient cells exhibited normal responses. Tyrosine phosphorylation of cellular proteins including phospholipases C-γ1 and C-γ2 was reduced in Btk/Lyn-deficient mast cells. Accordingly, FcεRI-induced elevation of intracellular Ca2+ concentrations and activation of protein kinase Cs were blunted in the doubly deficient cells. Third, in contrast, Btk and Lyn demonstrated opposing roles in cytokine secretion and mitogen-activated protein kinase activation. Lyn-deficient cells exhibited enhanced secretion of TNF-α and IL-2 apparently through the prolonged activation of extracellular signal-related kinases and c-Jun N-terminal kinase. Potentially accounting for this phenomenon and robust degranulation in Lyn-deficient cells, the activities of protein kinase Cα and protein kinase CβII, low at basal levels, were enhanced in these cells. Fourth, cytokine secretion was severely reduced and c-Jun N-terminal kinase activation was completely abrogated in Btk/Lyn-deficient mast cells. The data together demonstrate that Btk and Lyn are involved in mast cell signaling pathways in distinctly different ways, emphasizing that multiple signal outcomes must be evaluated to fully understand the functional interactions of individual signaling components.

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Bruton's tyrosine kinase (BTK) is a nonreceptor tyrosine kinase critical for B cell development and function. Mutations in BTK result in X-linked agammaglobulinemia (XLA) in humans and X-linked immunodeficiency (xid) in mice. Using a random mutagenesis scheme, we isolated a gain-of-function mutant called BTK* whose expression drives growth of NIH 3T3 cells in soft agar. BTK* results from a single point mutation in the pleckstrin homology (PH) domain, where a Glu is replaced by Lys at residue 41. BTK* shows an increase in phosphorylation on tyrosine residues and an increase in membrane targeting. Transforming activity requires kinase activity, a putative autophosphorylation site, and a functional PH domain. Mutation of the SH2 or SH3 domains did not affect the activity of BTK*. Expression of BTK* could also relieve IL-5 dependence of a B lineage cell line. These results show that transformation activation and regulation of BTK are critically dependent on the PH domain.

Aggregation of high-affinity receptors for immunoglobulin E (Fc⑀RI) on the surface of mast cells results in degranulation, a response that is potentiated by binding of stem cell factor (SCF) to its receptor Kit. We observed that one of the major initial signaling events associated with Fc⑀RI-mediated activation of human mast cells (HuMCs) is the rapid tyrosine phosphorylation of a protein of 25 to 30 kDa. The phosphorylation of this protein was also observed in response to SCF. This protein was identified as non-T-cell activation linker (NTAL), an adaptor molecule similar to linker for activated T cells (LAT). Unlike the Fc⑀RI response, SCF induced NTAL phosphorylation in the absence of detectable LAT phosphorylation. When SCF and antigen were added concurrently, there was a marked synergistic effect on NTAL phosphorylation, however, SCF did not enhance the phosphorylation of LAT induced by Fc⑀RI aggregation. Fc⑀RI-and SCF-mediated NTAL phosphorylation appear to be differentially regulated by Src kinases and/or Kit kinase, respectively. Diminution of NTAL expression by silencing RNA oligonucleotides in HuMCs resulted in a reduction of both Kit-and Fc⑀RI-mediated degranulation. NTAL, thus, appears to be an important link between the signaling pathways that are initiated by these receptors, culminating in mast cell degranulation. IntroductionMast cell activation leading to degranulation, arachidonic acid metabolism, and cytokine production is initiated following antigendependent aggregation of high-affinity receptors for immunoglobulin E (IgE) (Fc⑀RI) on the cell surface. 1 Stem cell factor (SCF), although primarily required for the growth, differentiation, and survival of mast cells by binding to Kit,2,3 potentiates secretory responses elicited via the Fc⑀RI. 4 Both Fc⑀RI and Kit responses follow tyrosine kinase activation and subsequent protein tyrosine phosphorylation. 5,6 Fc⑀RI possess no inherent tyrosine kinase activity thus require the recruitment of the Src family tyrosine kinase, Lyn, and the zeta-associated protein 70 (ZAP 70)-related tyrosine kinase, spleen tyrosine kinase (Syk), into the signaling complex, where, following receptor aggregation, they become sequentially activated. 7,8 Subsequent tyrosine phosphorylation of the ␤ and ␥ chains of the Fc⑀RI, and of the transmembrane adaptor molecule linker for activated T cells (LAT), provides multiple docking sites for downstream Src homology 2 (SH2) domaincontaining signaling molecules. 9 These initial tyrosine-phosphorylation events appear to be crucial for subsequent Fc⑀RI-mediated degranulation to proceed.Unlike the Fc⑀RI, Kit does possess inherent tyrosine kinase activity. 10,11 Binding of SCF induces autophosphorylation of Kit with consequential binding of SH2 domain-containing signaling molecules to the Kit cytosolic domain. 12 In contrast to Fc⑀RI signaling, to date there is little evidence that LAT or similar transmembrane adaptor molecules become phosphorylated following Kit activation. Thus, despite, Kit's ability to potentiate Fc⑀RI-mediated ...

B cells are selected for an intermediate level of B cell receptor (BCR) signaling strength: Attenuation below minimum (e.g. non-functional BCR)1 or hyperactivation above maximum (e.g. self-reactive BCR)2–3 thresholds of signaling strength causes negative selection. In ~25% of cases, acute lymphoblastic leukemia (ALL) cells carry the oncogenic BCR-ABL1 tyrosine kinase (Ph+), which mimics constitutively active pre-BCR signaling4,5. Current therapy approaches are largely focused on the development of more potent tyrosine kinase inhibitors to suppress oncogenic signaling below a minimum threshold for survival6. Here, we tested the hypothesis that targeted hyperactivation above a maximum threshold will engage a deletional checkpoint for removal of self-reactive B cells and selectively kill ALL cells. Testing various components of proximal pre-BCR signaling, we found that an incremental increase of Syk tyrosine kinase activity was required and sufficient to induce cell death. Hyperactive Syk was functionally equivalent to acute activation of a self-reactive BCR on ALL cells. Despite oncogenic transformation, this basic mechanism of negative selection was still functional in ALL cells. Unlike normal pre-B cells, patient-derived ALL cells express the inhibitory receptors PECAM1, CD300A and LAIR1 at high levels. Genetic studies revealed that Pecam1, Cd300a and Lair1 are critical to calibrate oncogenic signaling strength through recruitment of the inhibitory phosphatases Ptpn67 and Inpp5d8. Using a novel small molecule inhibitor of INPP5D9, we demonstrated that pharmacological hyperactivation of SYK and engagement of negative B cell selection represents a promising new strategy to overcome drug-resistance in human ALL.

Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE) is a chronic autoimmune disease that is characterized by defective immune tolerance combined with immune cell hyperactivity resulting in the production of pathogenic autoantibodies. Previous gene expression studies employing whole blood or peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMC) have demonstrated that a majority of patients with active disease have increased expression of type I interferon (IFN) inducible transcripts known as the IFN signature. The goal of the current study was to assess the gene expression profiles of isolated leukocyte subsets obtained from SLE patients. Subsets including CD19+ B lymphocytes, CD3+CD4+ T lymphocytes and CD33+ myeloid cells were simultaneously sorted from PBMC. The SLE transcriptomes were assessed for differentially expressed genes as compared to healthy controls. SLE CD33+ myeloid cells exhibited the greatest number of differentially expressed genes at 208 transcripts, SLE B cells expressed 174 transcripts and SLE CD3+CD4+ T cells expressed 92 transcripts. Only 4.4% (21) of the 474 total transcripts, many associated with the IFN signature, were shared by all three subsets. Transcriptional profiles translated into increased protein expression for CD38, CD63, CD107a and CD169. Moreover, these studies demonstrated that both SLE lymphoid and myeloid subsets expressed elevated transcripts for cytosolic RNA and DNA sensors and downstream effectors mediating IFN and cytokine production. Prolonged upregulation of nucleic acid sensing pathways could modulate immune effector functions and initiate or contribute to the systemic inflammation observed in SLE.

Mice with a targeted disruption of the gene encoding a lymphoid-expressed orphan G protein-coupled receptor, G2A, demonstrate a normal pattern of T and B lineage differentiation through young adulthood. As G2A-deficient animals age, they develop secondary lymphoid organ enlargement associated with abnormal expansion of both T and B lymphocytes. Older G2A-deficient mice (>1 year) develop a slowly progressive wasting syndrome, characterized by lymphocytic infiltration into various tissues, glomerular immune complex deposition, and anti-nuclear autoantibodies. G2A-deficient T cells are hyperresponsive to TCR stimulation, exhibiting enhanced proliferation and a lower threshold for activation. Our findings demonstrate that G2A plays a critical role in controlling peripheral lymphocyte homeostasis and that its ablation results in the development of a novel, late-onset autoimmune syndrome.