The Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model version 6 (WACCM6) is a major update of the whole atmosphere modeling capability in the Community Earth System Model (CESM), featuring enhanced physical, chemical and aerosol parameterizations. This work describes WACCM6 and some of the important features of the model. WACCM6 can reproduce many modes of variability and trends in the middle atmosphere, including the quasi‐biennial oscillation, stratospheric sudden warmings, and the evolution of Southern Hemisphere springtime ozone depletion over the twentieth century. WACCM6 can also reproduce the climate and temperature trends of the 20th century throughout the atmospheric column. The representation of the climate has improved in WACCM6, relative to WACCM4. In addition, there are improvements in high‐latitude climate variability at the surface and sea ice extent in WACCM6 over the lower top version of the model (CAM6) that comes from the extended vertical domain and expanded aerosol chemistry in WACCM6, highlighting the importance of the stratosphere and tropospheric chemistry for high‐latitude climate variability.

An overview is presented of the GLENS project, a community-wide effort enabling analyses of global and regional changes from stratospheric aerosol geoengineering in the presence of internal climate variability. CESM1(WACCM) STRATOSPHERIC AEROSOL GEOENGINEERING LARGE ENSEMBLE PROJECTSimone TilmeS, Jadwiga H. RicHTeR, Ben KRaviTz, douglaS g. macmaRTin, micHael J. millS, iSla R. SimpSon, anne S. glanville, JoHn T. FaSullo, adam S. pHillipS, Jean-FRancoiS lamaRque, JoSepH TRiBBia, Jim edwaRdS, SHeRi micKelSon, and SiddHaRTHa gHoSH S olar geoengineering using stratospheric sulfate aerosols has been discussed as a potential means of deliberately offsetting some of the effects of climate change (Crutzen 2006). Various model studies have demonstrated that reducing incoming solar radiation globally can offset the increase in global average surface temperature associated with increasing greenhouse gases (e.g., Kravitz et al. 2013). Despite the stabilization of global surface temperature, these simulations show significant changes in atmospheric conditions with global solar reductions or stratospheric sulfur or aerosol injections. Side effects in these simulations include "overcooling" of the tropics and "undercooling" of the poles, leading to continued Arctic summer sea ice loss (e.g., Moore et al. 2014;Tilmes et al. 2016). Additionally, the slowing of the hydrological cycle (e.g., Schmidt et al. 2012) and the potentially uneven cooling between the two hemispheres resulting from solar geoengineering can lead to shifts in precipitation patterns (Haywood et al. 2013; Jones et al. 2017) and reductions in monsoon precipitation (Tilmes et al. 2013). Many available model results to date are based on an artificial design intended to explore the impact of large forcing effects through global solar dimming. For other experiments, only a few ensemble members are performed, making it difficult to identify the robustness of regional climate effects.Simulations of stratospheric sulfate aerosol geoengineering inject sulfur dioxide (SO 2 ) into the stratosphere that oxidizes to form sulfate aerosols or they use direct injections of sulfate aerosols. These experiments require model capabilities beyond those in solar reduction simulations. The stratospheric aerosol distribution resulting from such injections depends on the model's aerosol microphysical scheme, as well as interactions with chemical, dynamical, and radiative processes (Pitari et al. 2014;Mills et al. 2017). Aerosol size and sedimentation are increased with the injection amount and the efficiency of the sulfates to affect the top of the atmosphere radiative imbalance is reduced (Niemeier and Timmreck 2015;Kleinschmitt et al. 2017). The warming of the tropical stratosphere in response to the enhanced aerosol burden results in circulation changes in the stratosphere with potential effects 2361NOVEMBER 2018 AMERICAN METEOROLOGICAL SOCIETY | on the quasi-biennial oscillation (QBO; Aquila et al. 2014), as well as impacts on the tropospheric circulation (Richter et al. 2018). Chan...

We present new insights into the evolution and interactions of stratospheric aerosol using an updated version of the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model (WACCM). Improved horizontal resolution, dynamics, and chemistry now produce an internally generated quasi‐biennial oscillation and significant improvements to stratospheric temperatures and ozone compared to observations. We present a validation of WACCM column ozone and climate calculations against observations. The prognostic treatment of stratospheric sulfate aerosols accurately represents the evolution of stratospheric aerosol optical depth and perturbations to solar and longwave radiation following the June 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo. We confirm the inclusion of interactive OH chemistry as an important factor in the formation and initial distribution of aerosol following large inputs of sulfur dioxide (SO2) to the stratosphere. We calculate that depletion of OH levels within the dense SO2 cloud in the first weeks following the Pinatubo eruption significantly prolonged the average initial e‐folding decay time for SO2 oxidation to 47 days. Previous observational and model studies showing a 30 day decay time have not accounted for the large (30–55%) losses of SO2 on ash and ice within 7–9 days posteruption and have not correctly accounted for OH depletion. We examine the variability of aerosol evolution in free‐running climate simulations due to meteorology, with comparison to simulations nudged with specified dynamics. We assess calculated impacts of volcanic aerosols on ozone loss with comparisons to observations. The completeness of the chemistry, dynamics, and aerosol microphysics in WACCM qualify it for studies of stratospheric sulfate aerosol geoengineering.

Geoengineering with stratospheric sulfate aerosols can, to some extent, be designed to achieve different climate objectives. Here we use the state‐of‐the‐art Community Earth System Model, version 1, with the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model as its atmospheric component (CESM1(WACCM)), to compare surface climate and stratospheric effects of two geoengineering strategies. In one, SO2 is injected into the tropical lower stratosphere at the equator to keep global mean temperature nearly constant under an RCP8.5 scenario, as has been commonly simulated in previous studies. In another, the Geoengineering Large Ensemble (GLENS), SO2 is injected into the lower stratosphere at four different locations (30°N/S and 15°N/S) to keep global mean temperature, the interhemispheric temperature gradient, and the equator‐to‐pole temperature gradient nearly unchanged. Both simulations are effective at offsetting changes in global mean temperature and the interhemispheric temperature gradient that result from increased greenhouse gases, but only GLENS fully offsets changes in the equator‐to‐pole temperature gradient. GLENS results in a more even aerosol distribution, whereas equatorial injection tends to result in an aerosol peak in the tropics. Moreover, GLENS requires less total injection than in the equatorial case due to different spatial distributions of the aerosols. Many other aspects of surface climate changes, including precipitation and sea ice coverage, also show reduced changes in GLENS as compared to equatorial injection. Stratospheric changes, including heating, circulation, and effects on the quasi‐biennial oscillation are greatly reduced in GLENS as compared to equatorial injection.

The January 2022 Hunga Tonga-Hunga Ha’apai volcanic eruption injected a relatively small amount of sulfur dioxide, but significantly more water into the stratosphere than previously seen in the modern satellite record. Here we show that the large amount of water resulted in large perturbations to stratospheric aerosol evolution. Our climate model simulation reproduces the observed enhanced water vapor at pressure levels ~30 hPa for three months. Compared with a simulation without a water injection, this additional source of water vapor increases hydroxide, which halves the sulfur dioxide lifetime. Subsequent coagulation creates larger sulfate particles that double the stratospheric aerosol optical depth. A seasonal forecast of volcanic plume transport in the southern hemisphere indicates this eruption will greatly enhance the aerosol surface area and water vapor near the polar vortex until at least October 2022, suggesting that there will continue to be an impact of this eruption on the climate system.

Prediction systems to enable Earth system predictability research on the subseasonal timescale have been developed with the Community Earth System Model, version 2 (CESM2) using two configurations that differ in their atmospheric components. One system uses the Community Atmosphere Model, version 6 (CAM6) with its top near 40 km, referred to as CESM2(CAM6). The other employs the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model, version 6 (WACCM6) whose top extends to ∼140 km, and it includes fully interactive tropospheric and stratospheric chemistry (CESM2(WACCM6)). Both systems are utilized to carry out subseasonal reforecasts for the 1999-2020 period following the Subseasonal Experiment’s (SubX) protocol. Subseasonal prediction skill from both systems is compared to those of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration CFSv2 and European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts (ECMWF) operational models. CESM2(CAM6) and CESM2(WACCM6) show very similar subseasonal prediction skill of 2-meter temperature, precipitation, the Madden-Julian Oscillation, and North Atlantic Oscillation to its previous version and to the NOAA CFSv2 model. Overall, skill of CESM2(CAM6) and CESM2(WACCM6) is a little lower than that of the ECMWF system. In addition to typical output provided by subseasonal prediction systems, CESM2 reforecasts provide comprehensive datasets for predictability research of multiple Earth system components, including three-dimensional output for many variables, and output specific to the mesosphere and lower-thermosphere (MLT) region from CESM2(WACCM6). It is shown that sudden stratosphere warming events, and the associated variability in the MLT, can be predicted ∼10 days in advance. Weekly real-time forecasts and reforecasts with CESM2(CAM6) and CESM2(WACCM6) are freely available.

We describe here changes in stratospheric dynamics and chemistry in a first century‐long sulfate aerosol geoengineering simulation in which the mean surface temperature and the interhemispheric and equator‐to‐pole surface temperature gradients were kept near their 2020 levels despite the RCP8.5 emission scenario. Simulations were carried out with the Community Earth System Model, version 1 with the Whole Atmosphere Community Climate Model as its atmospheric component [CESM1(WACCM)] coupled to a feedback algorithm controlling the magnitude of sulfur dioxide (SO2) injections at four injection latitudes. We find that, throughout the entire geoengineering simulation, the lower stratospheric temperatures increase by ∼0.19 K per Tg SO2 injection per year or ∼10 K with ∼40 Tg SO2/year total SO2 injection. These temperature changes are associated with a strengthening of the polar jets in the stratosphere and weakening of the mean zonal wind in the lower stratosphere subtropics and throughout the troposphere, associated with weaker storm track activity. In the geoengineering simulation the quasi‐biennial oscillation of the tropical lower stratospheric winds remains close to the presently observed quasi‐biennial oscillation, even for large amounts of SO2 injection. Water vapor in the stratosphere increases substantially: by 25% with ∼20 Tg SO2/year annual injection and by up to 90% with a ∼40 Tg SO2/year injection. Stratospheric column ozone in the geoengineering simulation is predicted to recover to or supersede preozone hole conditions by the end of the century.

Abstract. Nearly all air enters the stratosphere through the tropical tropopause layer (TTL). The TTL therefore exerts a control on stratospheric chemistry and climate. The hemispheric meridional overturning (Brewer–Dobson) circulation spreads this TTL influence upward and poleward. Stratospheric water vapor concentrations are set near the tropical tropopause and are nearly conserved in the lowermost stratosphere. The resulting upward propagating tracer transport signal of seasonally varying entry concentrations is known as the tape recorder signal. Here, we study the roles of vertical and horizontal mixing in shaping the tape recorder signal in the tropical lowermost stratosphere, focusing on the 80 hPa level. We analyze the tape recorder signal using data from satellite observations, a reanalysis, and a chemistry–climate model (CCM). By modifying past methods, we are able to capture the seasonal cycle of effective vertical transport velocity in the tropical lowermost stratosphere. Effective vertical transport velocities are found to be multiple times stronger than residual vertical velocities for the reanalysis and the CCM. We also study the tape recorder signal in an idealized 1-D transport model. By performing a parameter sweep, we test a range of different strengths of transport contributions by vertical advection, vertical mixing, and horizontal mixing. By introducing seasonality into the transport strengths, we find that the most successful simulation of the observed tape recorder signal requires vertical mixing at 80 hPa that is multiple times stronger compared to previous estimates in the literature. Vertical mixing is especially important during boreal summer when vertical advection is weak. Simulating the reanalysis tape recorder requires excessive amounts of vertical mixing compared to observations but also to the CCM, which hints at the role of spurious dispersion due to data assimilation. Contrasting the results between pressure and isentropic coordinates allows for further insights into quasi-adiabatic vertical mixing, e.g., associated with overshooting convection or breaking gravity waves. Horizontal mixing, which takes place primarily along isentropes due to Rossby wave breaking, is captured more consistently in isentropic coordinates. Overall, our study emphasizes the role of vertical mixing in lowermost tropical stratospheric transport, which appears to be as important as vertical advection by the residual mass circulation. This questions the perception of the tape recorder as a manifestation of slow upward transport as opposed to a phenomenon influenced by quick and intense transport through mixing, at least near the tape head. However, due to the limitations of the observational dataset used and the simplicity of the applied transport model, further work is required to more clearly specify the role of vertical mixing in lowermost stratospheric transport in the tropics.