Thermoregulation is of great importance for the survival and fitness of ectotherms as physiological functions are optimized within a narrow range of body temperature (T(b)). The precision with which reptiles thermoregulate has been proposed to be related to the thermal quality of their environments. Although a number of studies have looked at the effect of thermal constraints imposed by diel, seasonal and altitudinal variation on thermoregulatory strategies, few have addressed this question in a laboratory setting. We conducted a laboratory experiment to test whether tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus (order Rhynchocephalia), a cold-adapted reptile endemic to New Zealand, modify their thermoregulatory behaviour in response to different thermal environments. We provided tuatara with three thermal treatments: high-quality habitat [preferred T(b) (T(sel)) could be reached for 8 h/day], medium-quality habitat (T(sel) available for 5 h/day) and low-quality habitat (T(sel) available for 3 h/day). All groups maintained body mass, but tuatara in the low-quality habitat thermoregulated more accurately and tended to maintain higher T (b)s than tuatara in the high-quality habitat. This study thus provides experimental evidence that reptiles are capable of adjusting their thermoregulatory behaviour in response to different thermal constraints. This result also has implications for the conservation of tuatara. A proposed translocation from their current habitat to a higher latitudinal range within New Zealand (similar to the shift from our 8 h/day to our 5 h/day regime) is unlikely to induce thermoconformity; rather, tuatara will probably engage in more effective thermoregulatory behaviour.

Animal species diff er considerably in their response to predation risks. Interspecifi c variability in prey behaviour and morphology can alter cascading eff ects of predators on ecosystem structure and functioning. We tested whether speciesspecifi c morphological defenses may aff ect responses of leaf litter consuming invertebrate prey to sit-and-wait predators, the odonate Cordulegaster boltonii larvae, in aquatic food webs. Partly or completely blocking the predator mouthparts (mandibles and/or extensible labium), thus eliminating consumptive (i.e. lethal) predator eff ects, we created a gradient of predator-prey interaction intensities (no predator Ͻ predator -no attack Ͻ predator -non-lethal attacks Ͻ lethal predator). A fi eld experiment was fi rst used to assess both consumptive and non-consumptive predator eff ects on leaf litter decomposition and prey abundances. Laboratory microcosms were then used to examine behavioural responses of armored and non-armored prey to predation risk and their consequences on litter decomposition. Results show that armored and non-armored prey responded to both acute (predator -non-lethal attacks) and chronic (predator -no attack) predation risks. Acute predation risk had stronger eff ects on litter decomposition, prey feeding rate and prey habitat use than predator presence alone (chronic predation risk). Predator presence induced a reduction in feeding activity (i.e. resource consumption) of both prey types but a shift to predator-free habitat patches in non-armored detritivores only. Non-consumptive predator eff ects on prey subsequently decreased litter decomposition rate. Species-specifi c prey morphological defenses and behaviour should thus be considered when studying non-consumptive predator eff ects on prey community structure and ecosystem functioning.

Within populations, individuals often show repeatable variation in behaviour, called ‘animal personality’. In the last few decades, numerous empirical studies have attempted to elucidate the mechanisms maintaining this variation, such as life‐history trade‐offs. Theory predicts that among‐individual variation in behavioural traits could be maintained if traits that are positively associated with reproduction are simultaneously associated with decreased survival, such that different levels of behavioural expression lead to the same net fitness outcome. However, variation in resource acquisition may also be important in mediating the relationship between individual behaviour and fitness components (survival and reproduction). For example, if certain phenotypes (e.g. dominance or aggressiveness) are associated with higher resource acquisition, those individuals may have both higher reproduction and higher survival, relative to others in the population. When individuals differ in their ability to acquire resources, trade‐offs are only expected to be observed at the within‐individual level (i.e. for a given amount of resource, if an individual increases its allocation to reproduction, it comes at the cost of allocation to survival, and vice versa), while among individuals traits that are associated with increased survival may also be associated with increased reproduction. We performed a systematic review and meta‐analysis, asking: (i) do among‐individual differences in behaviour reflect among‐individual differences in resource acquisition and/or allocation, and (ii) is the relationship between behaviour and fitness affected by the type of behaviour and the testing environment? Our meta‐analysis consisted of 759 estimates from 193 studies. Our meta‐analysis revealed a positive correlation between pairs of estimates using both survival and reproduction as fitness proxies. That is, for a given study, behaviours that were associated with increased reproduction were also associated with increased survival, suggesting that variation in behaviour at the among‐individual level largely reflects differences among individuals in resource acquisition. Furthermore, we found the same positive correlation between pairs of estimates using both survival and reproduction as fitness proxies at the phenotypic level. This is significant because we also demonstrated that these phenotypic correlations primarily reflect within‐individual correlations. Thus, even when accounting for among‐individual differences in resource acquisition, we did not find evidence of trade‐offs at the within‐individual level. Overall, the relationship between behaviour and fitness proxies was not statistically different from zero at the among‐individual, phenotypic, and within‐individual levels; this relationship was not affected by behavioural category nor by the testing condition. Our meta‐analysis highlights that variation in resource acquisition may be more important in driving the relationship between behaviour and fitness than previously thought, ...

-Knowledge on ecological impacts of forestry practices on aquatic ecosystems relies almost exclusively on data from large-scale forest harvesting, often involving clearfelling of whole stream catchments. To determine effects associated with less intensive and widespread forest management, we examined the responses of headwater streams to small-scale forest harvesting, including riparian zones adjacent to study reaches but corresponding to less than 5% of the catchment areas. Stream reaches running through recently (2-4 years) harvested forest patches were paired with and compared with adjacent reaches bordered by mature broadleaf forest. We determined abiotic stream characteristics, invertebrate community structures and abundances, trout size and population densities, and leaf litter breakdown rates in each of these pairs. Harvested reaches were found to have different channel cross-section morphology and greater invertebrate abundances in leaf packs than mature forest reaches. Shifts in the abundance of common invertebrate predators were also attributed to riparian forest harvesting. Litter breakdown rates and brown trout densities did not show any significant difference between harvested and mature forest reaches across the four site pairs, possibly because of nonlinear responses to post-harvest riparian canopy openness. Managers must be aware that small-scale forest harvesting in stream riparian areas is not without consequences for aquatic ecosystems. Whether natural riparian forest openings, such as caused by tree death and blow-down, have similar effects on stream ecosystems is an important question to address if we are to confirm the usefulness of small-scale forestry and improve forest and stream management schemes.

Suitable habitat for translocated animals should meet the candidate species' total abiotic and biotic needs through space and time and for all life stages. An important aspect of habitat assessment for reptile translocations is the thermal suitability of the release site. Here we provide a strategic framework for evaluating the thermal suitability of a release site for egg-laying reptiles with temperaturedependent sex determination (TSD). We apply the framework to a case study of tuatara Sphenodon punctatus reintroduced to the south-eastern South Island of New Zealand. Our approach allows the assessment of the thermal suitability of future translocation sites for tuatara, and can be readily modified for any translocation of a reptile species with TSD.

The physiology of an animal determines the range of environmental conditions under which it can survive. Surprisingly, relatively few conservation studies have used physiology to make predictions about the performances of translocated individuals in their new environment. Tuatara Sphenodon punctatus are of international significance as the last rhynchocephalian reptile. Natural populations are now restricted to $30 offshore islands in northern New Zealand, where survival of at least one population is threatened by climate change. Translocation to cooler regions (further south, but within the past latitudinal range of the genus) is an important option for future management. However, the genetic suitability of available source populations for environments that are currently cooler is unclear. To help predict the success of translocation, we examined the effects of cool temperature on juveniles sourced from one of the most southerly natural populations and compared these with three lizard species that inhabit southern New Zealand. We found that tuatara possess the same range of preferred body temperature, feeding responses to cool temperatures and critical thermal minimum as these three lizard species. However, tuatara did not digest at temperatures below 12 1C, suggesting that new reintroduction sites must offer enough basking opportunities to allow digestion of prey in winter. As tuatara showed responses to cold temperatures similar to lizards from southern New Zealand, we predict that tuatara will survive if translocated south of their current range, but whether they will be able to produce self-sustaining populations still needs investigation. Physiological predictions from the current study should now be combined with measurements of population performance in an experimental translocation.

Host-parasite checklists are essential resources in ecological parasitology, and are regularly used as sources of data in comparative studies of parasite species richness across host species, or of host specificity among parasite species. However, checklists are only useful datasets if they are relatively complete, that is, close to capturing all host-parasite associations occurring in a particular region. Here, we use three approaches to assess the completeness of 25 checklists of metazoan parasites in vertebrate hosts from various geographic regions. First, treating checklists as interaction networks between a set of parasite species and a set of host species, we identify networks with a greater connectance (proportion of realized host-parasite associations) than expected for their size. Second, assuming that the cumulative rise over time in the number of known host-parasite associations in a region tends toward an asymptote as their discovery progresses, we attempt to extrapolate the estimated total number of existing associations. Third, we test for a positive correlation between the number of published reports mentioning an association and the time since its first record, which is expected because observing and reporting host-parasite associations are frequency-dependent processes. Overall, no checklist fared well in all three tests, and only three of 25 passed two of the tests. These results suggest that most checklists, despite being useful syntheses of regional host-parasite associations, cannot be used as reliable sources of data for comparative analyses.

Animal personality is defined as individual variation in behaviour that is consistent over time and/or across contexts. Animal personality is now considered a fundamental aspect in the fields of animal behaviour and behavioural ecology, yet the majority of studies assess repeatability of behaviours over only relatively short time periods (e.g. a week) using just two measures. Understanding whether behavioural traits are repeatable over longer periods is important for the assessment of individual differences in behaviour. Using zebrafish (Danio rerio), we investigated the repeatability of activity and exploratory behaviours, including distance travelled, time spent in the bottom of the arena, stationary time and overall exploration of the novel arena over a 28‐week period, using five intervals. All measures were repeatable over 28 weeks, but the repeatability estimates were much lower when comparing the initial week one and week two behaviours. There were clear sex differences in aspects of activity, with males more active than females. Importantly, our behavioural assays suggest that zebrafish require an initial “tank experience,” prior to the main phenotyping session, to ensure that behaviours being measured are repeatable—these effects are often not considered, but have implications for the many studies that measure behaviour at a single time point only.