Several categories of posttrauma appraisals (e.g., fear, shame, self-blame) have been associated with different forms of trauma-related distress (e.g., posttraumatic stress disorder [PTSD], depression symptoms). In this paper, we extend previous research to consider two appraisal categories that have received little attention to date: alienation and betrayal. Alienation may be important following interpersonal traumas that disrupt one's connection to self and others. Betrayal trauma theory points to the importance of betrayal in motivating responses to interpersonal traumas, though little research has directly examined appraisals of betrayal. With three separate samples of adults (one undergraduate; two community-based), we examined the relative contributions of six distinct appraisal categories (alienation, anger, betrayal, fear, shame, and self-blame) to three forms of trauma-related distress (PTSD, dissociation, and depression symptoms). Participants' posttrauma appraisals accounted for variance in trauma-related distress above and beyond characteristics of the trauma itself. Further, specific appraisal categories accounted for unique variance in different forms of trauma-related distress. Across samples, alienation was significantly related to all three distress types, suggesting that appraisals of disconnection from the self and others are common across trauma-related distress responses. Several distress-appraisal patterns were replicated across samples, including links between self-blame and depression; shame and PTSD; and betrayal and dissociation. Betrayal-dissociation links have important implications for betrayal trauma theory. The results point to the importance of understanding specific appraisal processes associated with different forms of trauma-related distress.

The present study examined the specificity of autobiographical memory in adolescents and adults with versus without child sexual abuse (CSA) histories. Eighty-five participants, approximately half of whom per age group had experienced CSA, were tested on the Autobiographical Memory Interview. Individual difference measures, including for trauma-related psychopathology, were also administered. Findings revealed developmental differences in the relation between autobiographical memory specificity and CSA. Even with depression statistically controlled, reduced memory specificity in CSA victims relative to controls was observed among adolescents but not among adults. A higher number of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder criteria met predicted more specific childhood memories in participants who reported CSA as their most traumatic life event. These findings contribute to the scientific understanding of childhood trauma and autobiographical memory functioning and underscore the importance of considering the role of age and degree of traumatization within the study of autobiographical memory.

Child abuse occurs across cultures and societies, remaining a critically important public health and policy issue due to its myriad detrimental outcomes. A substantial body of research now focuses on identifying vulnerability and protective factors that moderate children's risk of abuse in the hopes of being able to understand the mechanisms underlying why and how abuse occurs and to prevent it from happening in the future. Although a comprehensive review of all possible vulnerability and protective factors of child abuse is beyond the scope of this chapter, we describe key findings from the empirical literature organized around three major sections: (a) individual (e.g., gender, gender identity/orientation, age, disability status), (b) parental and familial context (e.g., parental abuse history, parenting practices, substance abuse, co-occurring intimate partner violence [IPV], family composition), and (c) environment and social network factors (e.g., poverty, neighborhood structure, community social support, religion, cultural identity). To understand vulnerability and resilience, we draw on studies that have used diverse sampling strategies (e.g., national surveys from the general population, clinical samples, university students) and methodologies (e.g., retrospective self-report and interviews, review of medical and child welfare records, prospective study designs). Finally, we discuss future directions for, and policy implications of, this body of research.

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