Clostridium difficile causes antibiotic-associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis by the actions of Rho-glucosylating toxins A and B. Recently identified hypervirulent strains, which are associated with increased morbidity and mortality, additionally produce the actin-ADP-ribosylating toxin C. difficile transferase (CDT). CDT depolymerizes actin, causes formation of microtubulebased protrusions, and increases pathogen adherence. Here we show that CDT-induced protrusions allow vesicle traffic and contain endoplasmic reticulum tubules, connected to microtubules via the calcium sensor Stim1. The toxin reroutes Rab11-positive vesicles containing fibronectin, which is involved in bacterial adherence, from basolateral to the apical membrane sides in a microtubule-and Stim1-dependent manner. The data yield a model of C. difficile adherence regulated by actin depolymerization, microtubule restructuring, subsequent Stim1-dependent Ca 2+ signaling, vesicle rerouting, and secretion of ECM proteins to increase bacterial adherence.
Clostridium difficile toxin (CDT) is a binary actin-ADP-ribosylating toxin that causes depolymerization of the actin cytoskeleton and formation of microtubule-based membrane protrusions, which are suggested to be involved in enhanced bacterial adhesion and colonization of hypervirulent C. difficile strains. Here, we studied the involvement of membrane lipid components of human colon adenocarcinoma (Caco-2) cells in formation of membrane protrusions. Depletion of cholesterol by methyl--cyclodextrin inhibited protrusion formation in a concentration-dependent manner but had no major effect on the toxin-catalyzed modification of actin in target cells. Repletion of cholesterol reconstituted formation of protrusions and increased velocity and total amount of protrusion formation. Methyl--cyclodextrin had no effect on the CDT-induced changes in the dynamics of microtubules. Formation of membrane protrusions was also inhibited by the cholesterol-binding polyene antibiotic nystatin. Degradation or inhibition of synthesis of sphingolipids by sphingomyelinase and myriocin, respectively, blocked CDT-induced protrusion formation. Benzyl alcohol, which increases membrane fluidity, prevented protrusion formation. CDT-induced membrane protrusions were stained by flotillin-2 and by the fluorescent-labeled lipid raft marker cholera toxin subunit B, which selectively interacts with GM1 ganglioside mainly located in lipid microdomains. The data suggest that formation and especially the initiation of CDTinduced microtubule-based membrane protrusions depend on cholesterol-and sphingolipid-rich lipid microdomains.Clostridium difficile causes antibiotic-associated diarrhea and pseudomembranous colitis (1). Both diseases depend on the production of toxins. Major virulence factors are the glycosylating C. difficile toxins A and B, which inactivate Rho GTPases (2-5). Especially hypervirulent strains additionally produce C. difficile transferase (CDT) 3 (6). CDT belongs to the family of actin-ADP-ribosylating toxins like Clostridium perfringens iota toxin and Clostridium botulinum C2 toxin (7-9). These toxins are binary in structure and consist of an enzymatic component, which possesses ADP-ribosyltransferase activity, and a separated binding/translocation component. The binding component is proteolytically activated and forms heptamers, which interact with the enzymatic component (8, 10). After binding of the toxin to a cell surface receptor, the toxin complex is endocytosed (11,12). At low pH of endosomal compartments, the binding component inserts into the membrane of endosomes and forms pores, which allow the translocation of the enzymatic component into the cytosol (10, 13). Here, the toxin ADP-ribosylates actin at arginine 177 (14). Modification at this site inhibits actin polymerization and causes destruction of the actin cytoskeleton.Recently, we reported that following ADP-ribosylation of actin, CDT induces the formation of microtubule-based protrusions in epithelial cells (15). These protrusions are in general Ͻ1 m in diameter ...
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